ZERO POINT ENERGY

ZERO POINT ENERGY

ZPower Corporation was founded to become a global leader in providing viable fuel-less and pollution-free energy alternatives that can deliver electrical, mechanical and thermal power. ZPower is developing several technologies which collect and convert energy from a previously untapped source, sometimes referred to as Zero Point Energy (ZPE).

In essence, the key is the conversion of electromagnetic radiation energy to electrical energy, and more specifically the conversion of an extremely high frequency bandwidth of the electromagnetic spectrum (beyond Gamma Rays) known as the zero point spectrum.

Zero Point Energy -- vibrational energy that molecules retain even at the absolute zero of temperature. Temperature in physics has been found to be a measure of the intensity of random molecular motion, and it might be expected that, as temperature is reduced to absolute zero, all motion ceases and molecules come to rest. In fact, however, the motion corresponding to Zero Point Energy never vanishes. Zero Point Energy results from principles of quantum mechanics, the physics of subatomic phenomena. Should the molecules ever come completely to rest, their component atoms would be precisely located and would simultaneously have precisely specified velocities, namely, of value zero. But it is an axiom of quantum mechanics that no object can ever have precise values of position and velocity simultaneously; thus molecules can never come completely to rest.   Physicists recognize that we are immersed in an energetic field. The existence of the zero point electromagnetic energy was discovered in 1958 by the Dutch physicist M. J. Sparnaay. Mr Sparnaay continued the experiments carried out by Hendrick B. G. Casimir in 1948 which showed the existence of a force between two uncharged plates which arose from electromagnetic energy surrounding the plates in a vacuum. Mr Sparnaay discovered that the forces acting on the plates arose from not only thermal energy (heat) but also from another type of radiation now known as classical electromagnetic zero point energy. Mr Sparnaay determined that not only did the zero point electromagnetic energy exist in a vacuum but also that it persisted even at a temperature of absolute zero. This term Zero Point Energy (ZPE) has been based on the concept that even if matter were cooled down to absolute zero (minus 273o C), in terms of its temperature, this energy field still remains.

Because it exists in a vacuum, ZPE is homogeneous (uniform) and isotropic (identical in all directions) as well as ubiquitous (exists everywhere). In addition, the intensity of the energy at any frequency is proportional to the cube of that frequency. Consequently, the intensity of the energy field increases without limit as the frequency increases resulting in an infinite energy density for the radiation spectrum. With the introduction of the ZPE into the classical electron theory, a vacuum at a temperature of absolute zero is no longer considered empty of all electromagnetic fields. Instead, the vacuum is now considered as filled with randomly fluctuating fields having the ZPE spectrum. The special characteristics of ZPE are that it has a virtually infinite energy density and that it is ubiquitous (even present in outer space), which make it very desirable as an energy source. However, because high energy densities exist at very high frequencies, and because conventional methods are only able to convert or extract energy effectively or efficiently at lower frequencies, effectively tapping this energy source has been unavailable using conventional techniques. Consequently, ZPE which may be used to provide for society's demanding energy needs has remained unharnessed. Until now… The solution in tapping this energy source is to create an antenna, or receiver, which will operate in the extremely high frequencies of ZPE, as indicated in this chart.It appears that this energy is quite intense. Nobel Laureate Richard Feynman and one of Einstein’s prot??, John Wheeler, calculated that there is more than enough energy in the volume of a coffee cup to evaporate all the worlds’ oceans. We fail to easily recognize this immense energy source as it is analogous to trying to weigh a beaker of water underneath the ocean. Andre Sakharov, the Soviet Physicist, argued that we should regard all matter as floating in a sea of energy. Modern physics tells us that the space between the stars and the space between the particles that which make up matter are filled with vast amounts of fluctuating energy: fluctuations that are fundamental to our view of the fabric of nature. Various researchers around the world have been discovering scientific anomalies which are being attributed to the conversion of ZPE. It is also thought that discovering the secret of tapping ZPE could be the key to opening the door to a unified theory of the Universe. In other words, our current understanding of science is like a puzzle with a large missing piece. ZPE would be the missing piece which completes the picture, possibly ushering a "Second Coming" of science. In essence, the implication of this energy field, is that all physical matter can be considered to be floating in a sea of energy, which if collected and converted into electrical energy, could more than meet the world’s insatiable energy demand.

Zero Point Energy Field

The zero point energy field may be the most compelling news of our time. Not only is it likely to be providing "free energy" in the relatively near future — in terms of electrical generating devices designed to tap its potential — but it is changing our whole cosmology, our worldview, our understanding and experience of existence. It is the true spiritual matrix of Life. In the mid-20th century, quantum physicists first identified what seemed to lie at the heart of existence: an omnipresent energetic substructure (ie, interpenetrating everything) that moves Faster-than-Light (FTL). As the century drew to a close, more and more experiments began demonstrating the validity of the theory. Science has, indeed, come full circle. Several hundred years ago, science, philosophy and religion were all the same body of study. They split apart in order to explore the nature of existence, each in its unique way, from a distinct orientation. But science has now brought us back to looking at Source. We now have new names for what the rest of us have referred to as God, Brahma, Allah, the Tao, Great Spirit, etc. From the perspective of quantum physics, we now talk about Zero Point, or what David Bohm called the Implicate Order; Deepak Chopra, the Submanifest State of Being; and others, the Quantum Field.         Tachyon   Zero point is an oceanic field of energy, vast beyond imagination. Arising out of it is tachyon energy. Existing in FTL non-frequency reality, formless Zero Point impacts the Slower-than-Light (STL) frequency universe through tachyon. Tachyon particles are the water drops sprayed off by the ocean waves. They seem to have a profound role in the creation and evolution of subatomic particles (eg, muons, quarks, taus) and consequently, the atomic structure of all of matter. Tachyon can therefore be seen as the source of all frequency.   What Is Tachyon? In 1966, cutting edge quantum physicists started describing two phenomena: zero point energy and tachyon energy. They are both omnipresent and travel at faster than the speed of light. They have no frequency — ie, no oscillation or spin. They are probably not even really energy, but something that might be called 'pre-energy'. Zero point is formless. Tachyon has form. Zero point is like the ocean. Tachyon is like a drop of ocean water. Tachyon interacts with the part of the universe that moves at less than the speed of light. It seems to be a catalyst or energy source for the evolution of self-organizing systems to greater and greater states of order.   Tachyon is the source of all frequency. In our current world, vibrational medicine (ie, healing using frequency) has been the cutting edge approach to health and vitality. This is a true paradigm shift away from the Newtonian & Cartesian worldview focused on the world of matter, of things and nouns vs the world of energy, processes and verbs.   The Problem with Frequency One problem that can arise with frequency, however, is that it is not intelligent. It only knows how to be itself, which is its own narrow range of the vast electromagnetic spectrum. Therefore, when a biological system is no longer deficient in a particular frequency, then that frequency becomes invasive, creating an undesirable impact, because nothing or no one turns it off. This was a situation that was very apparent in classical homeopathy, which I studied for several years. There were numerous cautionary tales of practitioners who were so intent on fixing a client they overrode the feedback the client was giving them and actually began imprinting the client with a negative energy pattern. I have personally had a negative experience in another context -- an energetic healing training session of giving someone more healing energy than her system was really ready for that day. I was enthusiastic and the instructor who was working with me was excited about the amount of energy being brought through by the two of us, but in hindsight, it seems clear that the client was not asking for that magnitude of energy in her first session. And that, in fact, she received more than was optimal for her, given the healing crisis that seemed to occur. More is not necessarily better. The other problem is the precision required for correctly diagnosing the frequency needed for a particular condition. If it doesn't match, it doesn't work. Again, homeopathy is a great example. Becoming a skilled homeopath is long, ardous challenge, and even hard work doesn't insure that one will be particularly good at prescribing the best remedy.   Outside-In Healing As the source of all frequency, Tachyon is not dependent upon practitioner sensitivity. As an outside-in modality, the Tachyonized devices feed the SOEF of the body (and all the sub-SOEFs of the cells and organs, etc.) by supplying the SOEFs with the raw, full energetic spectrum to choose from. The SOEFs simply convert the Tachyon into the needed frequency. When the deficiency is replenished and balanced, the conversion to frequency ceases and Tachyon continues to pass through the SOEFs with no impact. This is true for all external situations where Tachyon is being directed at a life form, whether it is via self-treatment or working with a healing practitioner.   Inside-Out Healing For inside-out, ATT offers an evolving range of Tachyonized products: including silica gel, Blue Green Algae, Spirulina, Vitamin C plus minerals, water(!), and numerous organ-specific herbal combinations. What this means is profound. Of course, the SOEFs of each of these products have been dramatically enhanced, but any one of us could have done that by simply putting them on a simple Tachyonized charging device. Charging substances' SOEFs and benefiting from the greater impact they have on us is easy and we can do it with any food or supplement. But, where the consumable substance itself is Tachyonized — meaning that it is transformed into a permanent Tachyon antennae itself — then when it is assimilated into the tissues of a particular part of the body, that part of the body becomes a Tachyon antennae as well! Let me repeat this:       Quantum Vacuum Fluctuations: A New Rosetta Stone of Physics? Dr. H. E. Puthoff Institute for Advanced Studies 1301 Capital Of Texas Highway S., Suite B 121 Austin, Texas 78746 (512) 328-5751 In a recent article in the popular press (The Economist, January 7, 1989, pp. 71-74) it was noted how many of this century's new technologies depend on the Alice-in-Wonderland physics of quantum mechanics, with all of its seeming absurdities. For starters, one begins with the observation that classical physics tells us that atoms, which can be likened to a miniature solar system with electron planets orbiting a nuclear sun, should not exist. The circling electrons should radiate away their energy like microscopic radio antennas and spiral into the nucleus. But atoms do exist, and multitudinous other phenomena which don't obey the rules do occur. To resolve this cognitive dissonance physicists introduced quantum mechanics, which is essentially a set of mathematical rules to describe what in fact does happen. But when we re-ask the question, "why didn't the electron radiate away its energy?" the answer is, basically, "well, in quantum theory it doesn't." It's at this point that not only the layman but some physicists can begin to feel that someone's not playing fair. I say only some physicists because the majority of working physicists are content simply to use quantum rules that work, that describe (if only statistically) what will happen in a given experiment under certain conditions. These are the so-called "logical positivists" who, in a philosophical sense, are like the news reporter whose only interest is the bottom line. There are nevertheless individuals here and there who still want to know why the electron didn't radiate, why Einstein's equations are in this form and not another, where does the ubiquitous zero- point energy that fills even empty space come from, why quantum theory, and perhaps the biggest question of all, how did the universe get started anyway? Surprisingly enough, there may be answers to these seemingly unanswerable meta-level questions. Perhaps even more surprising, they seem to be emerging, as a recent book title put it, from "Something called Nothing" (1), or to put it more correctly, from empty space, the vacuum, the void. To comprehend the significance of this statement, we will have to take a detour into the phenomenon of fluctuations with which quantum theory abounds, including the fluctuations of empy space itself. Before the advent of quantum theory, physics taught that any simple oscillator such as a pendulum, when excited, would eventually come to rest if not continuously energized by some outside force such as a spring. This is because of friction losses in the system. After it was recognized that quantum theory was a more accurate representation of nature, one of the findings of quantum theory was that such an oscillator would in fact not come to total rest but rather would continue to "jiggle" randomly about its resting point with a small amount of energy always present, the so-called"zero-point energy." Although it may not be observable to the eye on your grandfather clock because it is so minute, it is nonetheless very real, and in many physical systems has important consequences. one example is the presence of a certain amount of "noise" in a microwave receiver that can never be gotten rid of, no matter how perfect the technology. This is an example which shows that not only physical devices such as pendulums have this property of incessant fluctuation, but also fields, such as electromagnetic fields (radio waves, microwaves, light, X-rays, etc.). As it turns out, even though the zero-point energy in any particular mode of an electromagnetic field is minute, there are so many possible modes of propagation (frequencies, directions) in open space, the zero-point energy summed up over all possible modes is quite enormous; in fact, greater than, for example, nuclear energy densities. And this in all of so-called "empty" space around us. Let us concentrate on the effects of such electromagnetic zero-point fluctuations. With such large values, it might seem that the effects of electromagnetic zero-point energy should be quite obvious, but this is not the case because of its extremely uniform density. Just as a vase standing in a room is not likely to fall over spontaneously, so a vase bombarded uniformly on all sides by millions of ping pong balls would not do likewise because of the balanced conditions of the uniform bombardment. The only evidence of such a barrage might be minute jiggling of the vase, and similar mechanisms are thought to be involved in the quantum jiggle of zero-point motion. However, there are certain conditions in which the uniformity of the background electromagnetic zero-point energy is slightly disturbed and leads to physical effects. one is the slight perturbation of the lines seen from transitions between atomic states known as the Lamb Shift (2), named after its discoverer, Willis Lamb. Another, also named for its discoverer, is the Casimir Effect, a unique attractive quantum force between closely-spaced metal plates. An elegant analysis by Milonni et. al. at Los Angeles National Laboratory (3) shows the Casimir force to be due to radiation pressure from the background electromagnetic zero-point energy which has become unbalanced due to the presence of the plates, and which results in the plates being pushed together. From this it would seem that it might be possible to extract electrical energy from the vacuum, and indeed the possibility of doing so (at least in principle) has been shown in a paper of that same name by Robert Forward (4) at Hughes Research Laboratories in Malibu, California. What does this have to do with our basic questions? Let's start with the question as top why the electron in a simple hydrogen atom doesn't radiate as it circles the proton in its stable ground state atomic orbit. This issue has been re-addressed in a recent paper by the author, this time taking into account what has been learned over the years about the effects of zero-point energy. (5) There it is shown that the electron can be seen as continually radiating away its energy as predicted by classical theory, but simultaneously absorbing a compensating amount of energy from the ever-present sea of zero-point energy in which the atom is immersed, and an assumed equilibrium between these two processes leads to the correct values for the parameters known to define the ground-state orbit. Thus the ground-state orbit is set by a dynamic equilibrium in which collapse of the state is prevented by the presence of the zero-point energy. The significance of this observation is that the very stability of matter itself appears to depend on the presence of the underlying sea of electromagnetic zero-point energy. With regard to the gravitational attraction that is described so well by Einstein's theory, its fundamental nature is still not well understood. Whether addressed simply in terms of Newton's Law, or with the full rigor of general relativity, gravitational theory is basically descriptive in nature, without revealing the underlying dynamics for that description. As a result, attempts to unify gravity with the other forces (electromagnetic, strong and weak nuclear forces) or to develop a quantum theory of gravity have foundered again and again on difficulties that can be traced back to a lack of understanding at a fundamental level. To rectify these difficulties, theorists by and large have resorted to ever-increasing levels of mathematical sophistication and abstraction, as in the recent development of supergravity and superstring theories. Taking a completely different tack when addressing these difficulties in the sixties, the well-known Russian physicist Andrei Sakharov put forward the somewhat radical hypothesis that gravitation might not be a fundamental interaction at all, but rather a secondary or residual effect associated with other (non- gravitational) fields. (6) Specifically, Sakharov suggested that gravity might be an induced effect brought about by changes in the zero-point energy of the vacuum, due to the presence of matter. If correct, gravity would then be understood as a variation on the Casimir theme, in which background zero-point-energy pressures were again responsible. Although Sakharov did not develop the concept much further, he did outline certain criteria such a theory would have to meet such as predicting the value of the gravitational constant G in terms of zero-point-energy parameters. The approach to gravity outlined by Sakharov has recently been addressed in detail, and with positive reults, again by the author. (7) The gravitational interaction is shown to begin with the fact that a particle situated in the sea of electromagnetic zero-point fluctuations develops a "jitter" motion, or ZITTERBEWEGUNG as it is called. When there are two or more particles they are each influenced not only by the fluctuating background field, but also by the fields generated by the other particles, all similarly undergoing ZITTERBEWEGUNG motion, and the inter-particle coupling due to these fields results in the attractive gravitational force. Gravity can thus be understood as a kind of long-range Casimir force. Because of its electromagnetic unerpinning, gravitational theory in this form constitutes what is known in the literature as an "already-unified" theory. The major benefit of the new approach is that it provides a basis for understanding various characteristics of the gravitational interaction hitherto unexplained. These include the relative weakness of the gravitational force under ordinary circumstances (shown to be due to the fact that the coupling constant G depends inversely on the large value of the high-frequency cutoff of the zero-point-fluctuation spectrum); the existence of positive but not negative mass (traceable to a positive-only kinetic-energy basis for the mass parameter); and the fact that gravity cannot be shielded (a consequence of the fact that quantum zero-point-fluctuation "noise" in general cannot be shielded, a factor which in other contexts sets a lower limit on the detectability of electromagnetic signals). As to where the ubiquitous electromagnetic zero-point energy comes from, historically there have been two schools of thought: existence by fiat as part of the boundary conditions of the universe, or generation by the (quantum-fluctuation) motion of charged particles that constitute matter. A straightforward calculation of the latter possibility has recently been carried out by the author. (8) It was assumed that zero-point fields drive particle motion, and that the sum of particle motions throughout the universe in turn generate the zero-point fields, in the form of a self-regenerating cosmological feedback cycle not unlike a cat chasing its own tail. This self-constistent approach yielded the known zero-point field distribution, thus indicating a dynamic-generation process for the zero-point fields. Now as to the question of why quantum theory. Although knowledge of zero-point fields emerged from quantum physics as that subject matured, Professor Timothy Boyer at City College in New York took a contrary view. He bagan asking in the late sixties what would happen if we took classical physics as it was and introduced a background of random, classical fluctuating fields of the zero-point spectral distribution type. Could such an all-classical model reproduce quantum theory in its entirety, and might this possibility have been overlooked by the founders of quantum theory who were not aware of the existence of such a fluctuating background field? (First, it is clear from the previously-mentioned cosmological calculation that such a field distribution would reproduce itself on a continuing dynamic basis.) Boyer began by tackling the problems that led to the introduction of quantum theory in the first place, such as the blackbody radiation curve and the photoelectric effect. one by one the known quantum results were reproduced by this upstart neoclassical approach, now generally referred to as Stochastic Electrodynamics (SED) (9), as contrasted to quantum electrodynamics (QED). Indeed, Milonni at Los Alamos noted in a review of the Boyer work that had physicists in 1900 thought of taking this route, they would probably have been more comfortable with this classical approach than with Planck's hypothesis of the quantum, and one can only speculate as to the direction that physics would have taken then. The list of topics successfully analyzed within the SED formulation (i.e., yielding precise quantitative agreement with QED treatments) has now been extended to include the harmonic oscillator, Casimir and Van der Waals forces and the thermal effects of acceleration through the vacuum, to name a few. Out of this work emerged the reasons for such phenomena as the uncertainty principle, the incessant fluctuation of particle motion, the existence of Van der Waals forces even at zero temperature, and so forth, all shown to be due to the influence of the unceasing activity of the random background fields. There are also some notable failures in SED, such as transparent derivation of something as simple as Schrodinger's equation, which turns out as yet to be an intractable problem. Therefore, it is unlikely that quantum theory as we have come to know it and love it will be entirely replaced by a refurbished classical theory in the near future. Nonetheless, the successes to date of the SED approach, by its highlighting of the role of background zero-point-fluctuations, means that when the final chapter is written on quantum theory, field fluctuations in empty space will be accorded an honored position. And now to the preeminent question of all, where did the Universe come from? Or, in modern terminology, what started the Big Bang? Could quantum fluctuations of empty space have something to do with this also? Well, Prof. Edward Tryon of Hunter College of the City University of New York thought so when he proposed in 1973 that our Universe may have originated as a fluctuation of the vacuum on a large scale, as "simply one of those things which happen from time to time." (10) This idea was later refined and updated within the context of inflationary cosmology by Alexander Vilenkin of Tufts University, who proposed that the universe is created by quantum tunneling from literally nothing into the something we call our universe. (11) Although highly speculative, these types of models indicate once again that physicists find themselves turning again and again to the Void (and the fluctuations thereof) for their answers. Those with a practical bent of mind may be left with yet one more unanswered question. Can this emerging Rosetta Stone of physics be used to translate such lofty insights into mundane application? Could the engineer of the future specialize in "vacuum engineering?" Could the energy crisis be solved by harnessing the energies of the zero-point sea? After all, since the basic zero-point energy form is highly random in nature, and tending towards self-cancellation, if a way could be found to bring order out of chaos, the, because of the highly energetic nature of the vacuum fluctuations, relatively large effects could in principle be produced. Given our relative ignorance at this point, we must fall back on a quote given by Podolny (12) when contemplating this same issue. "It would be just as presumptuous to deny the feasibility of useful application as it would be irresponsible to guarantee such application." only the future can reveal the ultimate use to which Mankind will put this remaining Fire of the Gods, the quantum fluctuations of empty space. REFERENCES 1. R. Podolny, "Something Called Nothing" (Mir Publ., Moscow,1986) 2. W. E. Lamb, Jr., and R. C. Retherford, "Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Atom by a Microwave Method," Phys. Rev. 72, 241 (1947) 3. P. W. Milonni, R. J. Cook and M. E. Goggin, "Radiation Pressure from the Vacuum : Physical Interpretation of the Casimir Force," Phys. Rev. A 38, 1621 (1988) 4. R. L. Forward, "Extracting Electrical Energy from the Vacuum by Cohesion of Charged Foliated Conductors," Phys. Rev. B 30, 1700 (1984) 5. H. E. Puthoff, "Ground State of Hydrogen as a Zero-Point Fluctuation-Determined State," Phys. Rev. D 35, 3266 (1987) See also science news article, "Why Atoms Don't Collapse," in New Scientist, p. 26 (9 July 1987) 6. A. D. Sakharov, "Vacuum Quantum Fluctuations in Curved Space and the Theory of Gravitation, Dokl. Akad. Nauk. SSSR (Sov. Phys. - Dokl. 12, 1040 (1968). See also discussion in C. W. Misner, K. S. Thorne and J. A. Wheeler, Gravitation (Freeman, San Francisco,1973), p. 426 7. H. E. Puthoff, "Gravity as a Zero-Point Fluctuation Force," Phys. Rev. A 39, 2333 (1989) 8. H. E. Puthoff, "Source of Vacuum Electromagnetic Zero-Point Energy," subm. to Phys. Rev. A, (March 1989) 9. See review of SED by T. H. Boyer, "A Brief Survey of Stochastic Electrodynamics," in Foundations of Radiation Theory and Quantum Electrodynamics, edited by A. O. Barut (Plenum, New York, 1980) See also the very readable account "The Classical Vacuum," in Scientific American, p. 70 (August 1985) 10. E. P. Tryon, "Is the Universe a Vacuum Fluctuation?" Nature 246, 396 (1973) 11. A. Vilenkin, "Creation of Universes from Nothing," Phys. Lett. 117B, 25 (1982) 12. R. Podolny, Ref. 1, p. 211 from http://www.clas.ufl.edu/anthro/ZPE.html

Zero-Point Energy: Sailing The Sea of Energy

Classical physics dictates that the vacuum is devoid not only of matter but also of energy. The word usually suggests uninteresting empty space, but to modern quantum physicists, the vacuum has turned out to be rich with complex and unexpected behavior. They describe it as a state of minimum energy where quantum fluctuations, consistent with the uncertainty principle of physicist Werner Heisenberg, can lead to the temporary formation of particle-antiparticle pairs. Before the advent of quantum theory, classical physics taught that any simple, real-world oscillator, such as a pendulum, when excited, would eventually come to rest if not continuously energized by some outside force, such as a spring. Friction kills momentum. Then quantum theory came along declaring that an oscillator does not come to total rest but that it actually continues to "jiggle" randomly about its resting point with a very small amount of energy always present. Scientists call the energy produced by fluctuations of the electromagnetic and gravitational force fields in the vacuum zero-point energy (ZPE).

There is no doubt that vacuum fluctuations affect the behavior of microscopic particles and the world around us. In 1968, Russian physicist Andrei Sakharov speculated that gravitation might not be a fundamental interaction but rather a secondary effect associated with other nongravitational fields. Sakharov theorized that gravity might be an induced effect brought about by changes in the ZPE of the vacuum due to the presence of matter. His pioneering insight was based on the assumption that the electric component of the zero-point field causes charged particles to oscillate, and this vibration gives rise to a secondary electromagnetic field. The secondary electromagnetic field then reflects back onto the primary field. This subatomic cosmic dance results in an attractive force between the particles, thus causing gravitation.

Scientists radically disagree over just how much ZPE is available for possible extraction. Jordan Maclay, a former professor of electrical engineering at the University of Illinois in Chicago, who has secured funding from NASA to study the energy of the vacuum, has calculated that a region of vacuum the size of a proton could contain as much energy as all the matter in the entire Universe. Nobel prize-winning physicist Steven Weinberg, presently at the University of Texas in Austin, has an opposing view. Weinberg agrees that the total amount of ZPE in the Universe is abundant, but he believes that all of the zero-point energy available in a space the size of Earth is equal to the energy contained in one gallon of gasoline. Nobel Laureate Richard Feynman and one of Einstein's protégés, John Wheeler, calculated that there is more than enough energy in the volume of a coffee cup to evaporate all the world's oceans. Energy density in the zero-point field is just one of the hotly contested questions bouncing around the physics' community regarding this topic.

Modern zero-point energy research has languished with relatively little conventional interest or much funding, but scientific curiosity actually predates the formalism of quantum mechanics in 1925, which confirmed the existence of ZPE. Quantum mechanics asserts that just considering the fluctuation of the electromagnetic force, any given volume of empty space could contain an infinite number of vacuum-energy frequencies — and, therefore, an infinite supply of energy. Proponents believe that ZPE is energy from the vacuum continuum and is responsible for gravity and inertia as well as the Lamb shift and Casimir force. Researchers have called ZPE "zero-point electromagnetic radiation energy" or referred to it as "a flux of virtual particles," but, most important, nearly all agree that the quantum mechanical zero-point oscillations are real.

Most modern physicists understand that the vacuum is not a tranquil void but a quantum state with fluctuations having observable consequences. In recent years, evidence suggests that the electromagnetic zero-point field is not merely an artifact of quantum mechanics but a real entity with major implications for gravity, astrophysics, and technology. ZPE may represent a fundamental link about the relationship between relativity theory and quantum physics. Top-ranked physicists insist that research into zero-point energy is justified and should continue to be supported.

THE VACUUM, LIGHT SPEED, AND THE REDSHIFT

PRELIMINARY NOTE

This document is intended to give an overview of the main conclusions reached from recent developments in light-speed research. In order to do this effectively, it has been necessary to include background information which, for a few, will already be well-known. However, for the sake of the majority who are not conversant with these areas of physics, it was felt important to include this information. While this overview is comprehensive, the actual derivation of many conclusions is beyond its scope. These derivations have, nevertheless, been fully performed in a major scientific paper using standard maths and physics coupled with observational data. Full justification of the conclusions mentioned here can be found in that thesis. Currently, that paper in which the new model is presented, is being finalised for peer review and will be made available once this whole process is complete.

THE VACUUM

During the 20^th

 century, our knowledge regarding space and the properties of the vacuum has taken a considerable leap forward. The vacuum is more unusual than many people realise. It is popularly considered to be a void, an emptiness, or just 'nothingness.' This is the definition of a bare vacuum [1]. However, as science has learned more about the properties of space, a new and contrasting description has arisen, which physicists call the physical vacuum[1].

To understand the difference between these two definitions, imagine you have a perfectly sealed container. First remove all solids and liquids from it, and then pump out all gases so no atoms or molecules remain. There is now a vacuum in the container. It was this concept in the 17^th

 century that gave rise to the definition of a vacuum as a totally empty volume of space. It was later discovered that, although this vacuum would not transmit sound, it would transmit light and all other wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. Starting from the high energy side, these wavelengths range from very short wavelength gamma rays, X-rays, and ultra-violet light, through the rainbow spectrum of visible light, to low energy longer wavelengths including infra-red light, microwaves and radio waves.

THE ENERGY IN THE VACUUM

Then, late in the 19^th

 century, it was realised that the vacuum could still contain heat or thermal radiation. If our container with the vacuum is now perfectly insulated so no heat can get in or out, and if it is then cooled to absolute zero, all thermal radiation will have been removed. Does a complete vacuum now exist within the container? Surprisingly, this is not the case. Both theory and experiment show that this vacuum still contains measurable energy. This energy is called the zero-point energy (ZPE) because it exists even at absolute zero.

The ZPE was discovered to be a universal phenomenon, uniform and all-pervasive on a large scale. Therefore, its existence was not suspected until the early 20^th

 century. In 1911, while working with a series of equations describing the behaviour of radiant energy from a hot body, Max Planck found that the observations required a term in his equations that did not depend on temperature. Other physicists, including Einstein, found similar terms appearing in their own equations. The implication was that, even at absolute zero, each body will have some residual energy. Experimental evidence soon built up hinting at the existence of the ZPE, although its fluctuations do not become significant enough to be observed until the atomic level is attained. For example [2], the ZPE can explain why cooling alone will never freeze liquid helium. Unless pressure is applied, these ZPE fluctuations prevent helium's atoms from getting close enough to permit solidification. In electronic circuits another problem surfaces because ZPE fluctuations cause a random "noise" that places limits on the level to which signals can be amplified.

The magnitude of the ZPE is truly large. It is usually quoted in terms of energy per unit of volume which is referred to as energy density. Well-known physicist Richard Feynman and others [3] have pointed out that the amount of ZPE in one cubic centimetre of the vacuum "is greater than the energy density in an atomic nucleus" [4]. Indeed, it has been stated that [5]: "Formally, physicists attribute an infinite amount of energy to this background. But, even when they impose appropriate cutoffs at high frequency, they estimate conservatively that the zero-point density is comparable to the energy density inside an atomic nucleus." In an atomic nucleus alone, the energy density is of the order of 10

44 ergs per cubic centimetre. (An erg is defined as "the energy expended or work done when a mass of 1 gram undergoes an acceleration of 1 centimetre per second per second over a distance of 1 centimetre.")

Estimates of the energy density of the ZPE therefore range from at least 10

44 ergs per cubic centimetre up to infinity. For example, Jon Noring made the statement that "Quantum Mechanics predicts the energy density [of the ZPE] is on the order of an incomprehensible 10

98 ergs per cubic centimetre." Prigogine and Stengers also analysed the situation and provided estimates of the size of the ZPE ranging from 10

100 ergs per cubic centimetre up to infinity. In case this is dismissed as fanciful, Stephen M. Barnett from the University of Oxford, writing in Nature (March 22, 1990, p.289), stated: "The mysterious nature of the vacuum [is] revealed by quantum electrodynamics. It is not an empty nothing, but contains randomly fluctuating electromagnetic fields … with an infinite zero-point energy." In actual practice, recent work suggests there may be an upper limit for the estimation of the ZPE at about 10

114 ergs per cubic centimetre (this upper limit is imposed by the Planck length, as discussed below).

In order to appreciate the magnitude of the ZPE in each cubic centimetre of space, consider a conservative estimate of 10

52 ergs/cc. Most people are familiar with the light bulbs with which we illuminate our houses. The one in my office is labelled as 150 watts. (A watt is defined as 10

7 ergs per second.) By comparison, our sun radiates energy at the rate of 3.8 x 10

20 watts. In our galaxy there are in excess of 100 billion stars. If we assume they all radiate at about the same intensity as our sun, then the amount of energy expended by our entire galaxy of stars shining for one million years is roughly equivalent to the energy locked up in one cubic centimetre of space.

THE "GRANULAR STRUCTURE" OF SPACE

In addition to the ZPE, there is another aspect of the physical vacuum that needs to be presented. When dealing with the vacuum, size considerations are all-important. on a large scale the physical vacuum has properties that are uniform throughout the cosmos, and seemingly smooth and featureless. However, on an atomic scale, the vacuum has been described as a "seething sea of activity" [2], or "the seething vacuum" [5]. It is in this realm of the very small that our understanding of the vacuum has increased. The size of the atom is about 10

-8 centimetres. The size of an atomic particle, such as an electron, is about 10

-13 centimetres. As the scale becomes smaller, there is a major change at the Planck length (1.616 x 10

-33 centimetres), which we will designate as L* [6]. In 1983, F. M. Pipkin and R. C. Ritter pointed out in Science (vol. 219, p.4587), that "the Planck length is a length at which the smoothness of space breaks down, and space assumes a granular structure."

This "granular structure" of space, to use Pipkin and Ritter's phrase, is considered to be made up of Planck particles whose diameter is equal to L*, and whose mass is equal to a fundamental unit called the Planck mass, M*, (2.177 x 10

-5 grams). These Planck particles form the basis for various cosmological theories such as strings, super strings, 10-dimensional space, and so on. During the last hundred years, physicists have discovered that atomic particles such as electrons or protons, have a wave-form associated with them. This is termed the wave/particle duality of matter. These waves are called deBroglie waves and vary inversely with mass [7]. That is to say, the heavier the particle, the shorter its wavelength. This means that because a proton is more massive, its wavelength is shorter than an electron's. What is interesting is that Planck particles have a diameter L* that is equal to their deBroglie wavelength.

The physical vacuum of space therefore appears to be made up of an all-pervasive sea of Planck particles whose density is an unbelievable 3.6 x 10

93 grams per cubic centimetre. It might be wondered how anything can move through such a medium. It is because deBroglie wavelengths of elementary particles are so long compared with the Planck length, L*, that the vacuum is 'transparent' to these elementary particles. It is for the same reason that long wavelength infra-red light can travel through a dense cloud in space and reveal what is within instead of being absorbed, and why light can pass through dense glass. Therefore, motion of elementary particles through the vacuum will be effortless, as long as these particles do not have energies of the magnitude of what is referred to as Planck energy, or M*c²

 ('c' is the velocity of light). Atomic particles of that energy would simply be absorbed by the structure of the vacuum. From the figures for the density given above, the energy associated with this Planck particle sea making up the physical vacuum can be calculated to be of the order of 10

114 ergs per cubic centimetre, the same as the maximum value for the ZPE.

TWO THEORIES DESCRIBING THE VACUUM

Currently, there are two theories that describe the behaviour and characteristics of the physical vacuum and the ZPE at the atomic or sub-atomic level: the quantum electro-dynamic (QED) model [8], and the somewhat more recent stochastic electro-dynamic (SED) model [9,10]. They both give the same answers mathematically, so the choice between them is one of aesthetics. In some cases the QED model gives results that are easier to visualise; in other cases the SED model is better. Importantly, both come to the same conclusion that even at absolute zero the physical vacuum has an inherent energy density. The origin of this energy is discussed later. For now, the focus of attention is on the observable effects of this energy. The QED model maintains that the zero-point energy reveals its existence through the effects of sub-atomic virtual particles. By contrast, the SED approach affirms that the ZPE exists as electromagnetic fields or waves whose effects explain the observed phenomena equally well. Let us look at both in a little more detail.

THE QED MODEL OF THE VACUUM

At the atomic level, the QED model proposes that, because of the high inherent energy density within the vacuum, some of this energy can be temporarily converted to mass. This is possible since energy and mass can be converted from one to the other according to Einstein's famous equation [E = mc

2], where 'E' is energy, 'm' is mass, and 'c' is the speed of light. on this basis, the QED model proposes that the ZPE permits short-lived particle/antiparticle pairs (such as a positive and negative pion, or perhaps an electron and positron) to form and almost immediately annihilate each other [2,11]. These particle/antiparticle pairs are called virtual particles. Virtual particles are distinct from Planck particles which make up the structure of the vacuum. While virtual particles are, perhaps, about 10

-13 centimetres diameter, Planck particles are dramatically smaller at about 10

-33 cm. Virtual particles wink in and out of existence incredibly quickly. The exact relationship between the energy of these particles and the brief time of their existence is explained in quantum theory by Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that the uncertainty of time multiplied by the uncertainty of the energy is closely approximated to Planck's constant 'h' divided by 2

p. This quantum uncertainty, or indeterminacy, governed by the value of 'h', imposes fundamental limitations on the precision with which a number of physical quantities associated with atomic processes can be measured. In the case under consideration here, the uncertainty principle permits these virtual particle events to occur as long as they are completed within an extraordinarily brief period of time, which is of the order of 10

-23 seconds [5]. According to this QED model, an atomic particle such as a proton or electron, even when entirely alone in a vacuum at absolute zero, is continually emitting and absorbing these virtual particles from the vacuum [12].Consequently, a proton or electron is considered to be the centre of constant activity; it is surrounded by a cloud of virtual particles with which it is interacting [12]. In the case of the electron, physicists have been able to penetrate a considerable way into this virtual particle cloud. They have found that the further into the cloud they go, the smaller, more compact and point-like the electron becomes. At the same time they have discovered there is a more pronounced negative charge associated with the electron the further they penetrated into this cloud [13]. These virtual particles act in such a way as to screen the full electronic charge. There is a further important effect verified by observation and experiment: the absorption and emission of these virtual particles also causes the electron's "jitter motion" in a vacuum at absolute zero. As such, this jittering, or Zitterbewegung, as it is officially called [14], constitutes evidence for the existence of virtual particles and the ZPE of the vacuum.

THE SED MODEL OF THE VACUUM

In the SED approach, the vacuum at the atomic or sub-atomic level may be considered to be inherently comprised of a turbulent sea of randomly fluctuating electro-magnetic fields or waves. These waves exist at all wavelengths longer than the Planck length L*. At the macroscopic level, these all-pervasive zero-point fields (ZPF) are homogeneous and isotropic, which means they have the same properties uniformly in every direction throughout the whole cosmos. Furthermore, observation shows that this zero-point radiation (ZPR) must be "Lorentz invariant" [1]. This means that it must look the same to two observers no matter what the velocity of these observers is with respect to each other. Note that this Lorentz invariance makes the ZPF crucially different from any of the 19^th

 century concepts of an ether [15]. The old ether concept indicated absolute velocity through the ether could be determined. However, the Lorentz invariant condition indicates that the zero-point radiation will look the same to all observers regardless of their relative velocities.

Importantly, with the SED approach, Planck's quantum constant, 'h', becomes a measure of the strength of the ZPF. This situation arises because the fluctuations of the ZPF provide an irreducible random noise at the atomic level that is interpreted as the innate uncertainty described by Heisenberg's uncertainly principle [4,16]. Therefore, the zero-point fields are the ultimate source of this fundamental limitation with which we can measure some atomic phenomena and, as such, give rise to the indeterminacy or uncertainty of quantum theory mentioned above. In fact, Nelson pointed out in 1966 that if the ZPR had been discovered at the beginning of the 20^th

 century, then classical mechanics plus the ZPR could have formulated nearly all the results developed by quantum mechanics [17, 4].

In the SED explanation, the Zitterbewegung is accounted for by the random fluctuations of the ZPF, or waves, as they impact upon the electron and jiggle it around. There is also evidence for the existence of the zero-point energy in this model by something called the surface Casimir effect, predicted Hendrik Casimir, the Dutch scientist, in 1948 and confirmed nine years later by M. J. Sparnaay of the Philips Laboratory in Eindhoven, Holland [1]. The Casimir effect can be demonstrated by bringing two large metal plates very close together in a vacuum. When they are close, but not touching, there is a small but measurable force that pushes them together. The SED theory explains this simply. As the metal plates get closer, they end up excluding all wavelengths of the ZPF between the plates except the very short ones that are a sub-multiple of the plates' distance apart. In other words, all the long wavelengths of the ZPF are now acting on the plates from the outside. The combined radiation pressure of these external waves then forces the plates together [5,16]. The same effect can be seen on the ocean. Sailors have noted that if the distance between two boats is less than the distance between two wave crests (or one wavelength), the boats are forced towards each other.

The Casimir effect is directly proportional to the area of the plates. However, unlike other possible forces with which it may be confused, the Casimir force is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the plates' distance apart [18]. For plates with an area of one square centimetre separated by 0.5 thousandths of a millimetre, this force is equivalent to a weight of 0.2 milligrams. In January of 1997, Steven Lamoreaux reported verification of these details by an experiment reported in Physical Review Letters (vol.78, p5).

The surface Casimir effect therefore demonstrates the existence of the ZPE in the form of electromagnetic waves. Interestingly, Haisch, Rueda, Puthoff and others point out that there is a microscopic version of the same phenomenon. In the case of closely spaced atoms or molecules the all-pervasive ZPF result in short-range attractive forces that are known as van der Waals forces [4, 16]. It is these attractive forces that permit real gases to be turned into liquids [2]. (When an 'ideal' gas is compressed, it behaves in a precise way. When a real gas is compressed, its behaviour deviates from the ideal equation [19]).

The common objections to the actual existence of the zero-point energy centre around the idea that it is simply a theoretical construct. However the presence of both the Casimir effect and the Zitterbewegung, among other observational evidences, prove the reality of the ZPE.

LIGHT AND THE PROPERTIES OF SPACE

This intrinsic energy, the ZPE, which is inherent in the vacuum, gives free space its various properties. For example, the magnetic property of free space is called the permeability while the corresponding electric property is called the permittivity. Both of these are affected uniformly by the ZPE [20]. If they were not, the electric and magnetic fields in travelling light waves would no longer bear a constant ratio to each other, and light from distant objects would be noticeably affected [21]. Since the vacuum permeability and permittivity are also energy-related quantities, they are directly proportional to the energy per unit volume (the energy density) of the ZPE [20]. It follows that if the energy density of the ZPE ever increased, then there would be a proportional increase in the value of both the permeability and permittivity.

Because light waves are an electro-magnetic phenomenon, their motion through space is affected by the electric and magnetic properties of the vacuum, namely the permittivity and permeability. To examine this in more detail we closely follow a statement by Lehrman and Swartz [22]. They pointed out that light waves consist of changing electric fields that generate changing magnetic fields. This then regenerates the electric field, and so on. The wave travels by transferring energy from the electric field to the magnetic field and back again. The magnetic field resulting from the change in the electric field must be such as to oppose the change in the electric field, according to Lenz's Law. This means that the magnetic property of space has a kind of inertial property inhibiting the rapid change of the fields. The magnitude of this property is the magnetic constant of free space 'U' which is usually called the magnetic permeability of the vacuum.

The electric constant, or permittivity, of free space is also important, and is related to electric charges. A charge represents a kind of electrical distortion of space, which produces a force on neighbouring charges. The constant of proportionality between the interacting charges is 1/Q, which describes a kind of electric elastic property of space. The quantity Q is usually called the electric permittivity of the vacuum. It is established physics that the velocity of a wave motion squared is proportional to the ratio of the elasticity over the inertia of the medium in which it is travelling. In the case of the vacuum and the speed of light, c, this standard equation becomes

c

2

 = 1 / (UQ)

As noted above, both U and Q are directly proportional to the energy density of the ZPE. It therefore follows that any increase in the energy density of the ZPF will not only result in a proportional increase in U and Q, but will also cause a decrease in the speed of light, c.

WHY ATOMS DON'T SELF-DESTRUCT

But it is not only light that is affected by these properties of the vacuum. It has also been shown that the atomic building blocks of matter are dependent upon the ZPE for their very existence. This was clearly demonstrated by Dr. Hal Puthoff of the Institute for Advanced Studies in Austin, Texas. In Physical Review D, vol. 35:10, and later in New Scientist (28 July 1990), Puthoff started by pointing out an anomaly. According to classical concepts, an electron in orbit around a proton should be radiating energy. As a consequence, as it loses energy, it should spiral into the atomic nucleus, causing the whole structure to disappear in a flash of light. But that does not happen. When you ask a physicist why it does not happen, you will be told it is because of Bohr's quantum condition. This quantum condition states that electrons in specific orbits around the nucleus do not radiate energy. But if you ask why not, or alternatively, if you ask why the classical laws of electro-magnetics are violated in this way, the reply is generally vague and less than satisfactory [4].

Instead of ignoring the known laws of physics, Puthoff approached this problem with the assumption that the classical laws of electro-magnetics were valid, and that the electron is therefore losing energy as it speeds in its orbit around the nucleus. He also accepted the experimental evidence for the existence of the ZPE in the form of randomly fluctuating electro-magnetic fields or waves. He calculated the power the electron lost as it moved in its orbit, and then calculated the power that the electron gained from the ZPF. The two turned out to be identical; the loss was exactly made up for by the gain. It was like a child on a swing: just as the swing started to slow, it was given another push to keep it going. Puthoff then concluded that without the ZPF inherent within the vacuum, every atom in the universe would undergo instantaneous collapse [4, 23]. In other words, the ZPE is maintaining all atomic structures throughout the entire cosmos.

THE RAINBOW SPECTRUM

Knowing that light itself is affected by the zero-point energy, phenomena associated with light need to be examined. When light from the sun is passed through a prism, it is split up into a spectrum of seven colours. Falling rain acts the same way, and the resulting spectrum is called a rainbow. Just like the sun and other stars making up our own galaxy, distant galaxies each have a rainbow spectrum. From 1912 to 1922, Vesto Slipher at the Lowell Observatory in Arizona recorded accurate spectrographic measurements of light from 42 galaxies [24, 25]. When an electron drops from an outer atomic orbit to an inner orbit, it gives up its excess energy as a flash of light of a very specific wavelength. This causes a bright emission line in the colour spectrum.

However when an electron jumps to a higher orbit, energy is absorbed and instead of a bright emission line, the reverse happens -- a dark absorption line appears in the spectrum. Each element has a very specific set of spectral lines associated with it. Within the spectra of the sun, stars or distant galaxies these same spectral lines appear.

THE REDSHIFT OF LIGHT FROM GALAXIES

Slipher noted that in distant galaxies this familiar pattern of lines was shifted systematically towards the red end of the spectrum. He concluded that this redshift of light from these galaxies was a Doppler effect caused by these galaxies moving away from us. The Doppler effect can be explained by what happens to the pitch of a siren on a police car as it moves away from you. The tone drops. Slipher concluded that the redshift of the spectral lines to longer wavelengths was similarly due to the galaxies receding from us. For that reason, this redshift is usually expressed as a velocity, even though as late as 1960 some astronomers were seeking other explanations [25]. In 1929, Edwin Hubble plotted the most recent distance measurements of these galaxies on one axis, with their redshift recession velocity on the other. He noted that the further away the galaxies were, the higher were their redshifts [24].

It was concluded that if the redshift represented receding galaxies, and the redshift increased in direct proportion to the galaxies distances from us, then the entire universe must be expanding [24]. The situation is likened to dots on the surface of a balloon being inflated. As the balloon expands, each dot appears to recede from every other dot. A slightly more complete picture was given by relativity theory. Here space itself is considered to be expanding, carrying the galaxies with it. According this interpretation, light from distant objects has its wavelength stretched or reddened in transit because the space in which it is travelling is expanding.

THE REDSHIFT GOES IN JUMPS

This interpretation of the redshift is held by a majority of astronomers. However, in 1976, William Tifft of the Steward Observatory in Tucson, Arizona, published the first of a number of papers analyzing redshift measurements. He observed that the redshift measurements did not change smoothly as distance increased, but went in jumps: in other words they were quantised [26]. Between successive jumps, the redshift remained fixed at the value it attained at the last jump. This first study was by no means exhaustive, so Tifft investigated further. As he did so, he discovered that the original observations that suggested a quantised redshift were strongly supported wherever he looked [27 - 34]. In 1981 the extensive Fisher-Tully redshift survey was completed. Because redshift values in this survey were not clustered in the way Tifft had noted earlier, it looked as if redshift quantisation could be ruled out. However, in 1984 Tifft and Cocke pointed out that the motion of the sun and its solar system through space produces a genuine Doppler effect of its own, which adds or subtracts a little to every redshift measurement. When this true Doppler effect was subtracted from all the observed redshifts, it produced strong evidence for the quantisation of redshifts across the entire sky [35, 36].

The initial quantisation value that Tifft discovered was a redshift of 72.46 kilometres per second in the Coma cluster of galaxies. Subsequently it was discovered that quantisation figures of up to 13 multiples of 72.46 km/s existed. Later work established a smaller quantisation figure just half of this, namely 36.2 km/s. This was subsequently supported by Guthrie and Napier who concluded that 37.6 km/s was a more basic figure, with an error of 2 km/s [37-39]. After further observations, Tifft announced in 1991 that these and other redshift quantisations recorded earlier were simply higher multiples of a basic quantisation figure [40]. That figure turned out to be 8.05 km/s, which when multiplied by 9 gave the original 72.46 km/s value. Alternatively, when 8.05 km/s is multiplied by 9/2 the 36.2 km/s result is obtained. However, Tifft noted that this 8.05 km/s was not in itself the most basic result as observations revealed a 8.05/3 km/s, or 2.68 km/s, quantisation, which was even more fundamental [40]. Accepting this result at face value suggests that the redshift is quantised in fundamental steps of 2.68 km/s across the cosmos.

RE-EXAMINING THE REDSHIFT

If redshifts were truly a result of an expanding universe, the measurements would be smoothly distributed, showing all values within the range measured. This is the sort of thing we see on a highway, with cars going many different speeds within the normal range of driving speeds. However the redshift, being quantised, is more like the idea of those cars each going in multiples of, say, 5 kilometres an hour. Cars don't do that, but the redshift does. This would seem to indicate that something other than the expansion of the universe is responsible for these results.

We need to undertake a re-examination of what is actually being observed in order to find a solution to the problem. It is this solution to the redshift problem that introduces a new cosmological model. In this model, atomic behaviour and light-speed throughout the cosmos are linked with the ZPE and properties of the vacuum.

The prime definition of the redshift, 'z', involves two measured quantities. They comprise the observed change in wavelength 'D' of a given spectral line when compared with the laboratory standard 'W'. The ratio of these quantities [D/W = z] is a dimensionless number that measures the redshift [41]. However, it is customarily converted to a velocity by multiplying it by the current speed of light, 'c' [41]. The redshift so defined is then 'cz', and it is this cz which is changing in steps of 2.68 km/s. Since the laboratory standard wavelength 'W' is unaltered, it then follows that as [z = D/W] is systematically increasing in discrete jumps with distance, then D must be increasing in discrete jumps also. Now D is the difference between the observed wavelength of a given spectral line and the laboratory standard [41]. This suggests that emitted wavelengths are becoming longer in quantum jumps with increasing distance (or with look-back time). During the time between jumps, the emitted wavelengths remain unchanged from the value attained at the last jump.

The basic observations therefore indicate that the wavelengths of all atomic spectral lines have changed in discrete jumps throughout the cosmos with time. This could imply that all atomic emitters within each galaxy may be responsible for the quantised redshift, rather than the recession of those galaxies or universal expansion. Importantly, the wavelengths of light emitted from atoms are entirely dependent upon the energy of each atomic orbit. According to this new way of interpreting the data, the redshift observations might indicate that the energy of every atomic orbit in the cosmos simultaneously undergoes a series of discrete jumps with time. How could this be possible?

ATOMIC ORBITS AND THE REDSHIFT

The explanation may well be found in the work of Hal Puthoff. Since the ZPE is sustaining every atom and maintaining the electrons in their orbits, it would then also be directly responsible for the energy of each atomic orbit. In view of this, it can be postulated that if the ZPE were lower in the past, then these orbital energies would probably be less as well. Therefore emitted wavelengths would be longer, and hence redder. Because the energy of atomic orbits is quantised or goes in steps [42], it may well be that any increase in atomic orbital energy can similarly only go in discrete steps. Between these steps atomic orbit energies would remain fixed at the value attained at the last step. In fact, this is the precise effect that Tifft's redshift data reveals.

The outcome of this is that atomic orbits would be unable to access energy from the smoothly increasing ZPF until a complete unit of additional energy became available. Thus, between quantum jumps all atomic processes proceed on the basis of energy conservation, operating within the framework of energy provided at the last quantum jump. Increasing energy from the ZPE will not affect the atom until a particular threshold is reached, at which time all the atoms in the universe react simultaneously.

THE SIZE OF THE ELECTRON

This new approach can be analysed further. Mathematically it is known that the strength of the electronic charge is one of several factors governing the orbital energies within the atom [42]. Therefore, for the orbital energy to change, a simultaneous change in the value of the charge of both the electron and the proton would be expected. Although we will only consider the electron here, the same argument holds for the proton as well.

Theoretically, the size of the spherical electron, and hence its area, should appear to increase at each quantum jump, becoming "larger" with time. The so-called Compton radius of the electron is 3.86151 x 10^-11

centimetres which, in the SED approach, is significant. Malcolm H. MacGregor of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California drew some relevant conclusions in 'The Enigmatic Electron' (p. 6, and chapter 7, Kluwer, 1992) that were amplified later by Haisch, Rueda, and Puthoff [16]. Both groups pointed out that one defensible interpretation is that the electron really is a point-like entity, smeared out to its quantum dimensions by the ZPF fluctuations." As MacGregor initially emphasised, this "smearing out" of the electronic charge by the ZPF involves vacuum polarisation and the Zitterbewegung. When the calculations are done in SED using these phenomena, the Compton radius for the electron is indeed obtained [16].

Vacuum Fluctuations of Quantum Physics

"Zero Point Energy"

Zero Point Energy (ZPE), or vacuum fluctuation energy are terms used to describe the random electromagnetic oscillations that are left in a vacuum after all other energy has been removed. If you remove all the energy from a space, take out all the matter, all the heat, all the light... everything -- you will find that there is still some energy left. one way to explain this is from the uncertainty principle from quantum physics that implies that it is impossible to have an absolutely zero energy condition.

For light waves in space, the same condition holds. For every possible color of light, that includes the ones we can뭪 see, there is a non-zero amount of that light. Add up the energy for all those different frequencies of light and the amount of energy in a given space is enormous, even mind boggling, ranging from 10^36 to 10^70 Joules/m3.

In simplistic terms it has been said that there is enough energy in the volume the size of a coffee cup to boil away Earth뭩 oceans. - that뭩 one strong cup of coffee! For a while a lot of physics thought that concept was too hard to swallow. This vacuum energy is more widely accepted today.

What evidence shows that it exists?

First predicted in 1948, the vacuum energy has been linked to a number of experimental observations. Examples include the Casimir effect, Van der Waal forces, the Lamb-Retherford Shift, explanations of the Planck blackbody radiation spectrum, the stability of the ground state of the hydrogen atom from radiative collapse, and the effect of cavities to inhibit or enhance the spontaneous emission from excited atoms.

The Casimir Effect:

The most straight-forward evidence for vacuum energy is the Casimir effect. Get two metal plates close enough together and this vacuum energy will push them together. This is because the plates block out the light waves that are too big to fit between the plates. Eventually you have more waves bouncing on the outside than from the inside, the plates will get pushed together from this difference in light pressure. This effect has been experimentally demonstrated.

Can we tap into this energy?

It is doubtful that this can be tapped, and if it could be tapped, it is unknown what the secondary consequences would be. Remember that this is our lowest energy point. To get energy out, you presumably need to be at a lower energy state. Theoretical methods have been suggested to take advantage of the Casimir effect to extract energy (let the plates collapse and do work in the process) since the region inside the Casimir cavity can be interpreted as being at a lower energy state. Such concepts are only at the point of theoretical exercises at this point.

With such large amount of energy, why is it so hard to notice?

Imagine, for example, if you lived on a large plateau, so large that you didn뭪 know you were 1000 ft up. From your point of view, your ground is at zero height. As long as your not near the edge of your 1000 ft plateau, you won뭪 fall off, and you will never know that your zero is really 1000. It뭩 kind of the same way with this vacuum energy. It is essentially our zero reference point.

What about propulsion implications?

The vacuum fluctuations have also been theorized by Haisch, Rueda, and Puthoff to cause gravity and inertia. Those particular gravity theories are still up for debate. Even if the theories are correct, in their present form they do not provide a means to use electromagnetic means to induce propulsive forces. It has also been suggested by Millis that any asymmetric interactions with the vacuum energy might provide a propulsion effect.