Renaissance
The Renaissance is
a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Florence in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe.
As a cultural movement, it encompassed a resurgence of learning based on classical sources, the development of linear perspective in painting, and gradual but widespread educational reform.
Although the Renaissance saw revolutions in many intellectual pursuits, as well as social and political upheaval, it is perhaps best known for its artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who inspired the term "Renaissance man".[2][3]
There is a general, but not unchallenged, consensus that the Renaissance began in Florence, Tuscany in the 14th century.[4] Various theories have been proposed to account for its origins and characteristics, focusing on a variety of factors including the social and civic peculiarities of Florence at the time; its political structure; the patronage of its dominant family, the Medici;[5][6] and the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy following the Fall of Constantinople at the hands of the Ottoman Turks.[7][8][9]
The Renaissance has a long and complex historiography, and there has been much debate among historians as to the usefulness of Renaissance as a term and as a historical delineation.[10] Some have called into question whether the Renaissance was a cultural "advance" from the Middle Ages, instead seeing it as a period of pessimism and nostalgia for the classical age,[11] while others have instead focused on the continuity between the two eras.[12] Indeed, some have called for an end to the use of the term, which they see as a product of presentism – the use of history to validate and glorify modern ideals.[13] The word Renaissance has also been used to describe other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century.
Overview
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the rest of Europe by the 16th century, its influence affected literature, philosophy, art, politics, science, religion, and other aspects of intellectual inquiry. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism and human emotion in art.[14]
Renaissance thinkers sought out in Europe's monastic libraries and the crumbling Byzantine Empire the literary, historical, and oratorical texts of antiquity, typically written in Latin or ancient Greek, many of which had fallen into obscurity. It is in their new focus on literary and historical texts that Renaissance scholars differed so markedly from the medieval scholars of the Renaissance of the 12th century, who had focused on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural sciences, philosophy and mathematics, rather than on such cultural texts. Renaissance humanists did not reject Christianity; quite the contrary, many of the Renaissance's greatest works were devoted to it, and the Church patronized many works of Renaissance art. However, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life.[15] In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were brought back from Byzantium to Western Europe and engaged Western scholars for the first time since late antiquity. This new engagement with Greek Christian works, and particularly the return to the original Greek of the New Testament promoted by humanists Lorenzo Valla and Erasmus, would help pave the way for the Protestant Reformation.
Artists such as Masaccio strove to portray the human form realistically, developing techniques to render perspective and light more naturally. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe political life as it really was, that is to understand it rationally. A critical contribution to Italian Renaissance humanism Pico della Mirandola wrote the famous text "De hominis dignitate" (Oration on the Dignity of Man, 1486), which consists of a series of theses on philosophy, natural thought, faith and magic defended against any opponent on the grounds of reason. In addition to studying classical Latin and Greek, Renaissance authors also began increasingly to use vernacular languages; combined with the introduction of printing, this would allow many more people access to books, especially the Bible.[16]
In all, the Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and worldly, both through the revival of ideas from antiquity, and through novel approaches to thought. Some scholars, such as Rodney Stark,[17] play down the Renaissance in favor of the earlier innovations of the Italian city states in the High Middle Ages, which married responsive government, Christianity and the birth of capitalism. This analysis argues that, whereas the great European states (France and Spain) were absolutist monarchies, and others were under direct Church control, the independent city republics of Italy took over the principles of capitalism invented on monastic estates and set off a vast unprecedented commercial revolution which preceded and financed the Renaissance.
Origins
Most historians agree that the ideas that characterized the Renaissance had their origin in late 13th century Florence, in particular with the writings of Dante Alighieri (1265–1321) and Francesco Petrarca (1304–1374), as well as the painting of Giotto di Bondone (1267–1337).[18] Some writers date the Renaissance quite precisely; one proposed starting point is 1401, when the rival geniuses Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi competed for the contract to build the bronze doors for the Baptistery of the Florence Cathedral (Ghiberti won).[19] Others see more general competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, and why it began when it did. Accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins.
During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand. Artists depended totally on patrons while the patrons needed money to sustain genuises. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia and Europe. Silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa and Venice.[20]
[edit] Latin and Greek Phases of Renaissance humanism
In stark contrast to the High Middle Ages, when Latin scholars focused almost entirely on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural science, philosophy and mathematics,[21] Renaissance scholars were most interested in recovering and studying Latin and Greek literary, historical, and oratorical texts. Broadly speaking, this began in the 14th century with a Latin phase, when Renaissance scholars such as Petrarch, Coluccio Salutati (1331–1406), Niccolò de' Niccoli (1364–1437) and Poggio Bracciolini (1380–1459 AD) scoured the libraries of Europe in search of works by such Latin authors as Cicero, Livy and Seneca.[22] By the early 15th century, the bulk of such Latin literature had been recovered; the Greek phase of Renaissance humanism was now under way, as Western European scholars turned to recovering ancient Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts.[23]
Unlike the case of Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. Ancient Greek works on science, maths and philosophy had been studied since the High Middle Ages in Western Europe and in the medieval Islamic world, but Greek literary, oratorical and historical works, (such as Homer, the Greek dramatists, Demosthenes and Thucydides and so forth), were not studied in either the Latin or medieval Islamic worlds; in the Middle Ages these sorts of texts were only studied by Byzantine scholars. one of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity. This movement to reintegrate the regular study of Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts back into the Western European curriculum is usually dated to Coluccio Salutati's invitation to the Byzantine diplomat and scholar Manuel Chrysoloras (c.1355–1415) to Florence to teach Greek,[26] his knowledge of the Greek language was of significant importance. Another Greek Byzantine scholar of importance was Demetrius Chalcondyles (1424 – 1511) who taught Platonic philosophy and the Greek language in Italy for a period of over forty years; at Padua,[27] Perugia,[28] Milan and Florence.[25] Among his pupils were Johann Reuchlin, Janus Lascaris, Poliziano, Leo X, Baldassare Castiglione,[29] Giglio Gregorio Giraldi, Stefano Negri, and Giovanni Maria Cattaneo.[30][31]
The fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, accompanied by the closure of its schools of higher learning by the Ottoman Turks, brought many other Greek scholars to Italy and beyond, who brought with them Greek manuscripts, and knowledge of the classical Greek literature, some of which had been lost for centuries in the West.[32]
[edit] Social and political structures in Italy
The unique political structures of late Middle Ages Italy have led some to theorize that its unusual social climate allowed the emergence of a rare cultural efflorescence. Italy did not exist as a political entity in the early modern period. Instead, it was divided into smaller city states and territories: the Kingdom of Naples controlled the south, the Republic of Florence and the Papal States at the center, the Milanese and the Genoese to the north and west respectively, and the Venetians to the east. Fifteenth-century Italy was one of the most urbanised areas in Europe.[33] Many of its cities stood among the ruins of ancient Roman buildings; it seems likely that the classical nature of the Renaissance was linked to its origin in the Roman Empire's heartland.[34]
Historian and political philosopher Quentin Skinner points out that Otto of Freising (c. 1114 - 1158), a German bishop visiting north Italy during the 12th century, noticed a widespread new form of political and social organization, observing that Italy appeared to have exited from Feudalism so that its society was based on merchants and commerce. Linked to this was anti-monarchical thinking, represented in the famous early Renaissance fresco cycle Allegory of Good and Bad Government in Siena by Ambrogio Lorenzetti (painted 1338–1340) whose strong message is about the virtues of fairness, justice, republicanism and good administration. Holding both Church and Empire at bay, these city republics were devoted to notions of liberty. Skinner reports that there were many defences of liberty such as Matteo Palmieri's (1406–1475) celebration of Florentine genius not only in art, sculpture and architecture, but "the remarkable efflorescence of moral, social and political philosophy that occurred in Florence at the same time".[35]
Even cities and states beyond central Italy, such as the Republic of Florence at this time, were also notable for their merchant Republics, especially the Republic of Venice. Although in practice these were oligarchical, and bore little resemblance to a modern democracy, they did have democratic features and were responsive states, with forms of participation in governance and belief in liberty.[36][37][38] The relative political freedom they afforded was conducive to academic and artistic advancement.[39] Likewise, the position of Italian cities such as Venice as great trading centres made them intellectual crossroads. Merchants brought with them ideas from far corners of the globe, particularly the Levant. Venice was Europe's gateway to trade with the East, and a producer of fine glass, while Florence was a capital of textiles. The wealth such business brought to Italy meant large public and private artistic projects could be commissioned and individuals had more leisure time for study.[39]
[edit] Black Death
One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation caused by the Black Death in Florence, which hit Europe between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th-century Italy. Italy was particularly badly hit by the plague, and it has been speculated that the resulting familiarity with death caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on spirituality and the afterlife.[40] It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the sponsorship of religious works of art.[41] However, this does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred specifically in Italy in the 14th century. The Black Death was a pandemic that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy. The Renaissance's emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors.[10]
The plague was carried by fleas on sailing vessels returning from the ports of Asia, spreading quickly due to lack of proper sanitation: the population of England, then about 4.2 million, lost 1.4 million people to the bubonic plague. Florence's population was nearly halved in the year 1347. As a result of the decimation in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom. To answer the increased need for labor, workers traveled in search of the most favorable position economically.[42]
The demographic decline due to the plague had some economic consequences: the prices of food dropped and land values declined by 30 to 40 percent in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400.[43] Landholders faced a great loss but for ordinary men and women, it was a windfall. The survivors of the plague found not only that the prices of food are cheaper but also found that lands were more abundant, and that most of them inherited property from their dead relatives.
[edit] Cultural conditions in Florence
It has long been a matter of debate why the Renaissance began in Florence, and not elsewhere in Italy. Scholars have noted several features unique to Florentine cultural life which may have caused such a cultural movement. Many have emphasized the role played by the Medici, a banking family and later ducal ruling house, in patronizing and stimulating the arts. Lorenzo de' Medici (1449–1492) was the catalyst for an enormous amount of arts patronage, encouraging his countryman to commission works from Florence's leading artists, including Leonardo da Vinci, Sandro Botticelli, and Michelangelo Buonarroti.[5]
The Renaissance was certainly underway before Lorenzo came to power; indeed, before the Medici family itself achieved hegemony in Florentine society. Some historians have postulated that Florence was the birthplace of the Renaissance as a result of luck, i.e. because "Great Men" were born there by chance.[44] Da Vinci, Botticelli and Michelangelo were all born in Tuscany. Arguing that such chance seems improbable, other historians have contended that these "Great Men" were only able to rise to prominence because of the prevailing cultural conditions at the time.[45]
[edit] Characteristics
[edit] Humanism
In some ways Humanism was not a philosophy per se, but rather a method of learning. In contrast to the medieval scholastic mode, which focused on resolving contradictions between authors, humanists would study ancient texts in the original, and appraise them through a combination of reasoning and empirical evidence. Humanist education was based on the programme of 'Studia Humanitatis', that being the study of five humanities: poetry, grammar, history, moral philosophy and rhetoric. Although historians have sometimes struggled to define humanism precisely, most have settled on "a middle of the road definition... the movement to recover, interpret, and assimilate the language, literature, learning and values of ancient Greece and Rome".[46] Above all, humanists asserted "the genius of man ... the unique and extraordinary ability of the human mind."[47]
Humanist scholars shaped the intellectual landscape throughout the early modern period. Political philosophers such as Niccolò Machiavelli and Thomas More revived the ideas of Greek and Roman thinkers, and applied them in critiques of contemporary government. Pico della Mirandola wrote what is often considered the manifesto of the Renaissance, a vibrant defence of thinking, the Oration on the Dignity of Man. Matteo Palmieri (1406–1475), another humanist, is most known for his work Della vita civile (on Civic Life"; printed 1528) which advocated civic humanism, and his influence in refining the Tuscan vernacular to the same level as Latin. Palmieri's written works drawn on Roman philosophers and theorists, especially Cicero, who, like Palmieri, lived an active public life as a citizen and official, as well as a theorist and philosopher and also Quintilian. Perhaps the most succinct ｅxpression of his perspective on humanism is in a 1465 poetic work La città di vita, but an earlier work Della vita civile (On Civic Life) is more wide-ranging. Composed as a series of dialogues set in a country house in the Mugello countryside outside Florence during the plague of 1430, Palmieri expounds on the qualities of the ideal citizen. The dialogues include ideas about how children develop mentally and physically, how citizens can conduct themselves morally, how citizens and states can ensure probity in public life, and an important debate on the difference between that which is pragmatically useful and that which is honest.
The humanists believed that it is important to transcend to the afterlife with a perfect mind and body. This transcending belief can be done with education. The purpose of humanism was to create a universal man whose person combined intellectual and physical excellence and who was capable of functioning honorably in virtually any situation.[48] This ideology was referred to as il uomo universal, an ancient Greco-Roman ideal. The education during Renaissance was mainly composed of ancient literature and history. It was thought that the classics provided moral instruction and an intensive understanding of human behavior.
[edit] Art
The Renaissance marks the period of European history at the close of the Middle Ages and the rise of the Modern world. It represents a cultural rebirth from the 14th through the middle of the 17th centuries. Early Renaissance, mostly in Italy, bridges the art period during the fifteenth century, between the Middle Ages and the High Renaissance in Italy. It is generally known that Renaissance matured in Northern Europe later, in 16th century.[49] one of the distinguishing features of Renaissance art was its development of highly realistic linear perspective. Giotto di Bondone (1267–1337) is credited with first treating a painting as a window into space, but it was not until the demonstrations of architect Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446) and the subsequent writings of Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) that perspective was formalized as an artistic technique.[50] The development of perspective was part of a wider trend towards realism in the arts.[51] To that end, painters also developed other techniques, studying light, shadow, and, famously in the case of Leonardo da Vinci, human anatomy. Underlying these changes in artistic method, was a renewed desire to depict the beauty of nature, and to unravel the axioms of aesthetics, with the works of Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael representing artistic pinnacles that were to be much imitated by other artists.[52] Other notable artists include Sandro Botticelli, working for the Medici in Florence, Donatello another Florentine and Titian in Venice, among others.
Concurrently, in the Netherlands, a particularly vibrant artistic culture developed, the work of Hugo van der Goes and Jan van Eyck having particular influence on the development of painting in Italy, both technically with the introduction of oil paint and canvas, and stylistically in terms of naturalism in representation. (For more, see Renaissance in the Netherlands). Later, the work of Pieter Brueghel the Elder would inspire artists to depict themes of everyday life.[53]
In architecture, Filippo Brunelleschi was foremost in studying the remains of ancient classical buildings, and with rediscovered knowledge from the 1st-century writer Vitruvius and the flourishing discipline of mathematics, formulated the Renaissance style which emulated and improved on classical forms. Brunelleschi's major feat of engineering was the building of the dome of Florence Cathedral.[54] The first building to demonstrate this is claimed to be the church of St. Andrew built by Alberti in Mantua. The outstanding architectural work of the High Renaissance was the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica, combining the skills of Bramante, Michelangelo, Raphael, Sangallo and Maderno.
The Roman orders types of columns are used: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite. These can either be structural, supporting an arcade or architrave, or purely decorative, set against a wall in the form of pilasters. During the Renaissance, architects aimed to use columns, pilasters, and entablatures as an integrated system. one of the first buildings to use pilasters as an integrated system was in the Old Sacristy (1421–1440) by Filippo Brunelleschi.[55]
Arches, semi-circular or (in the Mannerist style) segmental, are often used in arcades, supported on piers or columns with capitals. There may be a section of entablature between the capital and the springing of the arch. Alberti was one of the first to use the arch on a monumental. Renaissance vaults do not have ribs. They are semi-circular or segmental and on a square plan, unlike the Gothic vault which is frequently rectangular.
The Renaissance artists were not pagans although they admired antiquity and they also kept some ideas and symbols of the medieval past. Nicola Pisano (c. 1220-c. 1278) imitated classical forms by portraying scenes from the Bible. The Anunciation by Nicola Pisano, from the Baptistry at Pisa, demonstrates that classical models influenced Italian art before the Renaissance took root as a literary movement [56]
[edit] Science
The upheavals occurring in the arts and humanities were mirrored by a dynamic period of change in the sciences. Some have seen this flurry of activity as a "scientific revolution", heralding the beginning of the modern age.[57] Others have seen it merely as an acceleration of a continuous process stretching from the ancient world to the present day.[58] Regardless, there is general agreement that the Renaissance saw significant changes in the way the universe was viewed and the methods with which philosophers sought to explain natural phenomena.[59]
Science and art were very much intermingled in the early Renaissance, with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci making observational drawings of anatomy and nature. An exhaustive 2007 study by Fritjof Capra [60] shows that Leonardo was a much greater scientist than previously thought, and not just an inventor. In science theory and in conducting actual science practice, Leonardo was innovative. He set up controlled experiments in water flow, medical dissection, and systematic study of movement and aerodynamics; he devised principles of research method that for Capra classify him as "father of modern science". In Capra's detailed assessment of many surviving manuscripts Leonardo's science is more in tune with holistic non-mechanistic and non-reductive approaches to science which are becoming popular today. Perhaps the most significant development of the era was not a specific discovery, but rather a process for discovery, the scientific method.[59] This revolutionary new way of learning about the world focused on empirical evidence, the importance of mathematics, and discarded the Aristotelian "final cause" in favor of a mechanical philosophy. Early and influential proponents of these ideas included Copernicus, Galileo, Newton and René Descartes[61][62]
The new scientific method led to great contributions in the fields of astronomy, physics, biology, and anatomy. With the publication of Vesalius's De humani corporis fabrica, a new confidence was placed in the role of dissection, observation, and a mechanistic view of anatomy.[59]
[edit] Religion
The new ideals of humanism, although more secular in some aspects, developed against a Christian backdrop, especially in the Northern Renaissance. Indeed, much (if not most) of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the Church.[15] However, the Renaissance had a profound effect on contemporary theology, particularly in the way people perceived the relationship between man and God.[15] Many of the period's foremost theologians were followers of the humanist method, including Erasmus, Zwingli, Thomas More, Martin Luther, and John Calvin.
The Renaissance began in times of religious turmoil. The late Middle Ages saw a period of political intrigue surrounding the Papacy, culminating in the Western Schism, in which three men simultaneously claimed to be true Bishop of Rome.[63] While the schism was resolved by the Council of Constance (1414), the 15th century saw a resulting reform movement known as Conciliarism, which sought to limit the pope's power. Although the papacy eventually emerged supreme in ecclesiastical matters by the Fifth Council of the Lateran (1511), it was dogged by continued accusations of corruption, most famously in the person of Pope Alexander VI, who was accused variously of simony, nepotism and fathering four illegitimate children whilst Pope, whom he married off to gain more power.[64]
Churchmen such as Erasmus and Luther proposed reform to the Church, often based on humanist textual criticism of the New Testament.[15] Indeed, it was Luther who in October 1517 published the 95 Theses, challenging papal authority and criticizing its perceived corruption, particularly with regard to its sale of indulgences. The 95 Theses led to the Reformation, a break with the Roman Catholic Church that previously claimed hegemony in Western Europe. Humanism and the Renaissance therefore played a direct role in sparking the Reformation, as well as in many other contemporaneous religious debates and conflicts.
[edit] Self-awareness
By the 15th century, writers, artists and architects in Italy were well aware of the transformations that were taking place and were using phrases like modi antichi (in the antique manner) or alle romana et alla antica (in the manner of the Romans and the ancients) to describe their work. The term la rinascita (rebirth) first appeared, however, in its broad sense in Giorgio Vasari's Vite de' più eccellenti architetti, pittori, et scultori Italiani (The Lives of the Artists, 1550, revised 1568).[65][66] Vasari divides the age into three phases: the first phase contains Cimabue, Giotto, and Arnolfo di Cambio; the second phase contains Masaccio, Brunelleschi, and Donatello; the third centers on Leonardo da Vinci and culminates with Michelangelo. It was not just the growing awareness of classical antiquity that drove this development, according to Vasari, but also the growing desire to study and imitate nature.[67]
[edit] Spread
In the 15th century, the Renaissance spread with great speed from its birthplace in Florence, first to the rest of Italy, and soon to the rest of Europe. The invention of the printing press allowed the rapid transmission of these new ideas. As it spread, its ideas diversified and changed, being adapted to local culture. In the 20th century, scholars began to break the Renaissance into regional and national movements.
[edit] Italy
While Renaissance ideas were moving north from Italy, there was a simultaneous southward spread of some areas of innovation, particularly in music.[68] The music of the 15th century Burgundian School defined the beginning of the Renaissance in that art and the polyphony of the Netherlanders, as it moved with the musicians themselves into Italy, formed the core of what was the first true international style in music since the standardization of Gregorian Chant in the 9th century.[68] The culmination of the Netherlandish school was in the music of the Italian composer, Palestrina. At the end of the 16th century Italy again became a center of musical innovation, with the development of the polychoral style of the Venetian School, which spread northward into Germany around 1600.
The paintings of the Italian Renaissance differed from those of the Northern Renaissance. Italian Renaissance artists were among the first to paint secular scenes, breaking away from the purely religious art of medieval painters. At first, Northern Renaissance artists remained focused on religious subjects, such as the contemporary religious upheaval portrayed by Albrecht Dürer. Later on, the works of Pieter Bruegel influenced artists to paint scenes of daily life rather than religious or classical themes. It was also during the Northern Renaissance that Flemish brothers Hubert and Jan van Eyck perfected the oil painting technique, which enabled artists to produce strong colors on a hard surface that could survive for centuries.[69] A feature of the Northern Renaissance was its use of the vernacular in place of Latin or Greek, which allowed greater freedom of ｅxpression. This movement had started in Italy with the decisive influence of Dante Alighieri on the development of vernacular languages; in fact the focus on writing in Italian has neglected a major source of Florentine ideas expressed in Latin.[70] The spread of the technology of the German invention of movable type printing boosted the Renaissance, in Northern Europe as elsewhere; with Venice becoming a world center of printing.
[edit] Portugal
In Portugal, the Renaissance arrived through the influence of the wealthy Italian merchants that started investing their money in the profitable Indian commerce that Portugal had monopolized during the late 15th century. Lisbon flourished, and writers such as Gil Vicente, Sá de Miranda, Bernardim Ribeiro and Luís de Camões and artists such as Nuno Gonçalves appeared.
[edit] Croatia
[edit] Spain
The Renaissance arrived in the Iberian peninsula through the Mediterranean possessions of the Aragonese Crown and the city of Valencia. Indeed, many of the early Spanish Renaissance writers come from the Kingdom of Aragon, including Ausiàs March and Joanot Martorell. In the Kingdom of Castile, the early Renaissance was heavily influenced by the Italian humanism, starting with writers and poets starting with the Marquis of Santillana, who introduced the new Italian poetry to Spain in the early 15th century. Other writers, such as Jorge Manrique, Fernando de Rojas, Juan del Encina, Juan Boscán Almogáver and Garcilaso de la Vega, kept a close resemblance to the Italian canon. Miguel de Cervantes's masterpiece Don Quixote is credited as the first Western novel. Renaissance humanism flourished in the early 16th century, with influential writers such as philosopher Juan Luis Vives, grammarian Antonio de Nebrija or natural historian Pedro de Mexía.
Later Spanish Renaissance tended towards religious themes and mysticism, with poets such as fray Luis de León, Teresa of Ávila and John of the Cross, and treated issues related to the exploration of the New World, with chroniclers and writers such as Inca Garcilaso de la Vega or Bartolomé de las Casas, giving rise to a body of work, now known as Spanish Renaissance literature. The late Renaissance in Spain also saw the rise of artists such as El Greco, and composers such as Tomás Luis de Victoria and Antonio de Cabezón.
[edit] Northern Europe
The Renaissance as it occurred in Northern Europe has been termed the "Northern Renaissance".
[edit] England
In England, the Elizabethan era marked the beginning of the English Renaissance with the work of writers William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, Sir Thomas More, Francis Bacon, Sir Philip Sidney, John Milton, as well as great artists, architects (such as Inigo Jones who introduced Italianate architecture to England), and composers such as Thomas Tallis, John Taverner, and William Byrd.
[edit] France
In 1495 the Italian Renaissance arrived in France, imported by King Charles VIII after his invasion of Italy. A factor that promoted the spread of secularism was the Church's inability to offer assistance against the Black Death. Francis I imported Italian art and artists, including Leonardo da Vinci, and built ornate palaces at great expense. Writers such as François Rabelais, Pierre de Ronsard, Joachim du Bellay and Michel de Montaigne, painters such as Jean Clouet and musicians such as Jean Mouton also borrowed from the spirit of the Italian Renaissance.
In 1533, a fourteen-year old Caterina de' Medici, (1519–1589) born in Florence to Lorenzo II de' Medici and Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne married Henry, second son of King Francis I and Queen Claude. Though she became famous and infamous for her role in France's religious wars, she made a direct contribution in bringing arts, sciences and music (including the origins of ballet) to the French court from her native Florence.
[edit] Germany
In the second half of the 15th century, the spirit of the age spread to Germany and the Low Countries, where the development of the printing press (ca. 1450) and early Renaissance artists like the painters Jan van Eyck (1395–1441) and Hieronymus Bosch (1450–1516) and the composers Johannes Ockeghem (1410–1497), Jacob Obrecht (1457–1505) and Josquin des Prez (1455–1521), predated the influence from Italy. In the early Protestant areas of the country humanism became closely linked to the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation, and the art and writing of the German Renaissance frequently reflected this dispute.[71] However, the gothic style and medieval scholastic philosophy remained exclusively until the turn of the 16th century. Emperor Maximilian I of Habsburg (Ruling:1493-1519) was the first truly Renaissance monarch of the Holy Roman Empire, later known as "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" (Diet of Cologne 1512).
[edit] Hungary
The Renaissance style came directly from Italy during the Quattrocento to Hungary first in the Central European region, thanks to the development of early Hungarian-Italian relationships – not only in dynastic connections, but also in cultural, humanistic and commercial relations – growing in strength from the 14th century. Italian architectural influence became stronger in the reign of Zsigmond thanks to the church foundations of the Florentine Scolaries and the castle constructions of Pipo of Ozora. The relationship between Hungarian and Italian Gothic styles was a second reason – exaggerated breakthrough of walls is avoided, preferring clean and light structures. The new Italian trend combined with existing national traditions to create a particular local Renaissance art. Acceptance of Renaissance art was furthered by the continuous arrival of humanist thought in the country. Many young Hungarians studying at Italian universities came closer to the Florentine humanist center, so a direct connection with Florence evolved. The growing number of Italian traders moving to Hungary, specially to Buda, helped this process. New thoughts were carried by the humanist prelates, among them Vitéz János, archbishop of Esztergom, one of the founders of Hungarian humanism.[72] During the long reign of emperor Sigismund of Luxemburg the Royal Castle of Buda became probably the largest Gothic palace of the late Middle Ages. King Matthias Corvinus (r. 1458–1490) rebuilt the palace in early Renaissance style and further explanded it.[73][74] After the marriage in 1476 of king Matthias to Beatrice of Naples, Buda became one of the most important artistic centres of the Renaissance north of the Alps.[75] The most important humanists living in Matthias' court were Antonio Bonfini and the famous Hungarian poet Janus Pannonius.[75] András Hess set up a printing press in Buda in 1472. Matthias Corvinus's library, the Bibliotheca Corviniana, was Europe's greatest collections of secular books: historical chronicles, philosophic and scientific works in the 15th century. His library was second only in size to the Vatican Library. (However, the Vatican Library mainly contained Bibles and religious materials.)[76] In 1489, Bartolomeo della Fonte of Florence wrote that Lorenzo de Medici founded his own Greek-Latin library encouraged by the example of the Hungarian king. Corvinus's library is part of UNESCO World Heritage.[77] Other important figures of Hungarian Renaissance: Bálint Balassi (poet), Sebestyén Tinódi Lantos (poet), Bálint Bakfark (composer and lutenist)
[edit] Netherlands
[edit] Poland
An early Italian humanist who came to Poland in the mid-15th century was Filip Callimachus. Many Italian artists came to Poland with Bona Sforza of Milan, when she married King Zygmunt I of Poland in 1518.[78] This was supported by temporarily strengthened monarchies in both areas, as well as by newly established universities.[79]
[edit] Russia
Renaissance trends from Italy and Central Europe influenced Russia in many ways, though this influence was rather limited due to the large distances between Russia and the main European cultural centers, on one hand, and the strong adherence of Russians to their Orthodox traditions and Byzantine legacy, on the other hand.
Prince Ivan III introduced Renaissance architecture to Russia by inviting a number of architects from Italy, who brought new construction techniques and some Renaissance style elements with them, while in general following the traditional designs of the Russian architecture. In 1475 the Bolognese architect Aristotele Fioravanti came to rebuild the Cathedral of the Dormition in the Moscow Kremlin, damaged in an earthquake. Fioravanti was given the 12th-century Vladimir Cathedral as a model, and produced a design combining traditional Russian style with a Renaissance sense of spaciousness, proportion and symmetry.
In 1485 Ivan III commissioned the building of a royal Terem Palace within the Kremlin, with Aloisio da Milano being the architect of the first three floors. Aloisio da Milano, as well as the other Italian architects, also greatly contributed to the construction of the Kremlin walls and towers. The small banqueting hall of the Russian Tsars, called the Palace of Facets because of its facetted upper story, is the work of two Italians, Marco Ruffo and Pietro Solario, and shows a more Italian style. In 1505, an Italian known in Russia as Aleviz Novyi or Aleviz Fryazin arrived in Moscow. He may have been the Venetian sculptor, Alevisio Lamberti da Montagne. He built 12 churches for Ivan III, including the Cathedral of the Archangel, a building remarkable for the successful blending of Russian tradition, Orthodox requirements and Renaissance style. It is believed that the Cathedral of the Metropolitan Peter in Vysokopetrovsky Monastery, another work of Aleviz Novyi, later served as an inspiration for the so called octagon-on-tetragon architectural form in the Moscow Baroque of the late 17th century.
Between the early 16th and the late 17th centuries, however, an original tradition of stone tented roof architecture had been developed in Russia. It was quite unique and different from the contemporary Renaissance architecture elsewhere in Europe, though some researches call that style 'Russian Gothic' and compare it with the European Gothic architecture of the earlier period. The Italians, with their advanced technology, may have influenced the invention of the stone tented roof (the wooden tents were known in Russia and Europe long before). According to one hypothesis, an Italian architect called Petrok Maly may have been an author of the Ascension Church in Kolomenskoye, one of the earliest and most prominent tented roof churches.[80]
By the 17th century the influence of Renaissance painting resulted in Russian icons becoming slightly more realistic, while still following most of the old icon painting canons, as seen in the works of Bogdan Saltanov, Simon Ushakov, Gury Nikitin, Karp Zolotaryov and other Russian artists of the era. Gradually the new type of secular portrait painting appeared, called parsúna (from "persona" - person), which was transitional style between abstract iconographics and real paintings.
In the mid 16th century Russians adopted printing from Central Europe, with Ivan Fyodorov being the first known Russian printer. In the 17th century printing became widespread, and woodcuts became especially popular. That led to the development of a special form of folk art known as lubok printing, which persisted in Russia well into the 19th century.
A number of technologies of Renaissance period was adopted by Russians from Europe rather early, and perfected subsequently to became a part of strong domestic tradition. Mostly these were military technologies, such as cannon casting adopted at least in the 15th century. The Tsar Cannon, which is the world's largest bombard by caliber, is the masterpiece of Russian cannon making. It was cast in 1586 by Andrey Chokhov, and is notable also by its rich relief decoration. Another technology, that according to one hypothesis originally was brought from Europe by Italians, resulted in the development of vodka, the national beverage of Russia. As early as 1386 the Genoese ambassadors brought the first aqua vitae ("the living water") to Moscow and presented it to Grand Duke Dmitry Donskoy. The Genoese likely got this beverage with the help of the alchemists of Provance, who used the Arab-invented distillation apparatus to convert grape must into alcohol. A Moscovite monk called Isidore used this technology to produce the first original Russian vodka c. 1430.[81]
[edit] Historiography
[edit] Conception
The term was first used retrospectively by the Italian artist and critic Giorgio Vasari (1511–1574) in his book The Lives of the Artists (published 1550). In the book Vasari was attempting to define what he described as a break with the barbarities of gothic art: the arts had fallen into decay with the collapse of the Roman Empire and only the Tuscan artists, beginning with Cimabue (1240–1301) and Giotto (1267–1337) began to reverse this decline in the arts. According to Vasari, antique art was central to the rebirth of Italian art.[82]
However, it was not until the 19th century that the French word Renaissance achieved popularity in describing the cultural movement that began in the late-13th century. The Renaissance was first defined by French historian Jules Michelet (1798–1874), in his 1855 work, Histoire de France. For Michelet, the Renaissance was more a development in science than in art and culture. He asserted that it spanned the period from Columbus to Copernicus to Galileo; that is, from the end of the 15th century to the middle of the 17th century.[83] Moreover, Michelet distinguished between what he called, "the bizarre and monstrous" quality of the Middle Ages and the democratic values that he, as a vocal Republican, chose to see in its character.[10] A French nationalist, Michelet also sought to claim the Renaissance as a French movement.[10]
The Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt (1818–1897) in his Die Cultur der Renaissance in Italien (1860), by contrast, defined the Renaissance as the period between Giotto and Michelangelo in Italy, that is, the 14th to mid-16th centuries. He saw in the Renaissance the emergence of the modern spirit of individuality, which had been stifled in the Middle Ages.[84] His book was widely read and was influential in the development of the modern interpretation of the Italian Renaissance.[85] However, Buckhardt has been accused of setting forth a linear Whiggish view of history in seeing the Renaissance as the origin of the modern world.[12]
More recently, historians have been much less keen to define the Renaissance as a historical age, or even a coherent cultural movement. Randolph Starn, Historian at the University of California Berkeley, stated:
"Rather than a period with definitive beginnings and endings and consistent content in between, the Renaissance can be (and occasionally has been) seen as a movement of practices and ideas to which specific groups and identifiable persons variously responded in different times and places. It would be in this sense a network of diverse, sometimes converging, sometimes conflicting cultures, not a single, time-bound culture".[12]
[edit] Debates about progress
There is debate about the extent to which the Renaissance improved on the culture of the Middle Ages. Both Michelet and Burckhardt were keen to describe the progress made in the Renaissance towards the modern age. Burckhardt likened the change to a veil being removed from man's eyes, allowing him to see clearly.[44]
In the Middle Ages both sides of human consciousness – that which was turned within as that which was turned without – lay dreaming or half awake beneath a common veil. The veil was woven of faith, illusion, and childish prepossession, through which the world and history were seen clad in strange hues.[86]
—Jacob Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy
On the other hand, many historians now point out that most of the negative social factors popularly associated with the medieval period – poverty, warfare, religious and political persecution, for example – seem to have worsened in this era which saw the rise of Machiavelli, the Wars of Religion, the corrupt Borgia Popes, and the intensified witch-hunts of the 16th century. Many people who lived during the Renaissance did not view it as the "golden age" imagined by certain 19th-century authors, but were concerned by these social maladies.[87] Significantly, though, the artists, writers, and patrons involved in the cultural movements in question believed they were living in a new era that was a clean break from the Middle Ages.[65] Some Marxist historians prefer to describe the Renaissance in material terms, holding the view that the changes in art, literature, and philosophy were part of a general economic trend from feudalism towards capitalism, resulting in a bourgeois class with leisure time to devote to the arts.[88]
Johan Huizinga (1872–1945) acknowledged the existence of the Renaissance but questioned whether it was a positive change. In his book The Waning of the Middle Ages, he argued that the Renaissance was a period of decline from the High Middle Ages, destroying much that was important.[11] The Latin language, for instance, had evolved greatly from the classical period and was still a living language used in the church and elsewhere. The Renaissance obsession with classical purity halted its further evolution and saw Latin revert to its classical form. Robert S. Lopez has contended that it was a period of deep economic recession.[89] Meanwhile George Sarton and Lynn Thorndike have both argued that scientific progress was perhaps less original than has traditionally been supposed.[90]
Some historians have begun to consider the word Renaissance to be unnecessarily loaded, implying an unambiguously positive rebirth from the supposedly more primitive "Dark Ages" (Middle Ages). Many historians now prefer to use the term "Early Modern" for this period, a more neutral designation that highlights the period as a transitional one between the Middle Ages and the modern era.[91] Others such as Roger Osborne have come to consider the Italian Renaissance as a repository of the myths and ideals of western history in general, and instead of rebirth of ancient ideas as a period of great innovation [92]
[edit] Other Renaissances
The term Renaissance has also been used to define periods outside of the 15th and 16th centuries. Charles H. Haskins (1870–1937), for example, made a case for a Renaissance of the 12th century.[93] Other historians have argued for a Carolingian Renaissance in the 8th and 9th centuries, and still later for an Ottonian Renaissance in the 10th century.[94] Other periods of cultural rebirth have also been termed "renaissances", such as the Bengal Renaissance, al-Nahda or the Harlem Renaissance.
[edit] See also
르네상스(Rinascimento) 구체적으로 14세기에서 시작하여 16세기 말에 유럽에서 일어난 문화, 예술 전반에 걸친 1000년 전의고대 그리스와 로마 문명의 재인식과 재수용을 의미한다.
유럽은 르네상스의 시작과 더불어 기나긴 중세시대의 막을 내렸으며, 동시에 르네상스를 거쳐서 근세시대로 접어들게 되었다.
르네상스의 정신, 혹은 운동은 이탈리아에서 비롯되었으며, 얼마안가 알프스를 넘어 유럽의 다른 국가, 즉 프랑스, 네덜란드, 영국, 독일, 스페인 등지로 퍼져나갔다. 그러나 스칸디나비아 반도의 나라들은 이 운동에 거의 영향을 입지 않은 것으로 알려져 있다.
개념의 확립
이탈리아어로 Il Rinascimento(Rinasimento)라는 어원을 가진 이 말은 프랑스 역사가인 미슐레 Michelet 가 프랑스어인 Renaissance라는 말로 확립시켰으며 이것이 영어에서도 그대로 사용되어 현재에 이르게 되었다.
원 의미는 “재생”(再生, rebirth)이라는 뜻으로 르네상스라는 개념에 포함된 재생이라는 의미는 두가지로 볼 수 있다.
고전 텍스트를 재발견하여 유럽 문화에 새로운 생기를 불어넣은 것이다.
1550년, 이탈리아의 화가-역사가 조르조 바사리가 “이탈리아 미술가 열전”(Le vite de' piu eccelenti pittori, scultori e architettori)에서 ‘미술의 재생’이라고 언급
1559년, 프랑스의 인문주의자 아미요가 플루타르코스의 “영웅전”(ΟΙ ΒΙΟΙ ΠΑΡΑΛΛΗΛΟΙ)을 번역하면서 그 헌정문에 ‘문예의 재생’을 언급
1697년, 프랑스의 철학자 피에르 벨이 “역사비평사전”에서 ‘문예 르네상스’라는 항목 수록
1701년, 프랑스의 문학자 퓌르티에르이 “보편적 사전”에서 ‘미술 르네상스’라는 항목 수록
르네상스라는 말이 19세기에 만들어진 이후 르네상스 시기는 다양하게 해석되어왔다.
부르크하르트 시대에는 르네상스가 명백한 시대구분이라고 생각되었으나 게르만계 학자들의 중세 재평가 작업에 의해 르네상스의 특징이 사실은 중세에서도 발견되고 있다는 것이 밝혀졌다. 또 르네상스 시대에는 점성술이나 마술 등 비이성적, 비과학적인 태도가 여전히 많이 남아있었다. 즉 중세와 르네상스를 명확히 나누는 것은 어렵다는 말이다. 르네상스가 근대의 시작인가 아닌가의 논쟁은 아직 계속되고 있다.
전통적인 관점은 15세기 이탈리아의 르네상스가 중심이 되어 전 유럽으로 확산된 흐름이라고 보는 것이다.
구체적으로 언급하면 아랍의 지식을 흡수하고, 경험적인 태도를 가지게 되고, 현세지향적이 되고, 인쇄술의 발달로 지식이 확산될 토양을 확보하고, 예술에서 새로운 기법과 실험을 시도하게되는 등의 변화를 말한다. 이 관점은 르네상스 시기에 유럽이 암흑기에서 벗어나 대항해시대로 상징되는 경제성장 시기로 진입했다고 보는 것이다. 이탈리아 르네상스는 종종 근대의 시작으로 간주되곤 한다.
마르크스주의 역사가들은 르네상스를 미술, 문학, 철학 등이 변화된 유사혁명 정도로 본다.
오직 극소수의 가진자들에게만 의미가 있었을 뿐 대부분의 유럽 사람들에게는 여전히 중세였다는 관점이다.
오늘날 많은 역사학자들은 르네상스가 실질적인 것이라기보다는 지적, 이념적 변화 정도로 본다. 더 나아가 중세의 부정적인 특징인 가난, 무지, 전쟁, 종교/정치적 박해 등은 마키아벨리와 종교전쟁, 마녀사냥의 시대인 16세기에 더 심해졌다고 보고 있다.
19세기에 르네상스에 대해 적었던 학자들은 르네상스 시기의 민중들이 황금시대에 살았던 것처럼 묘사하여 지금까지도 그런 이미지가 남아있지만 그렇지는 않았다. 르네상스 시기의 작가, 화가 그리고 그들의 후원자들이 민중들의 고통과는 관계없이 자신들은 중세의 암흑기를 끝내고 새 시대를 열고 있다고 믿었다는 점은 주목할 필요가 있다.
호이징가는 르네상스의 존재는 인정하지만 그것이 긍정적인 변화였는가에는 의문을 품었다. 그는 르네상스는 중세 말기에 불과하며 오히려 그 시기에 파괴된 것이 더 많지는 않은가 하는 문제제기를 하였다. 예를 들어, 라틴어는 르네상스 시기까지 자연적인 변화를 겪으며 사용되던 살아있는 언어였는데, 고전 순수주의라는 강박관념으로 화석화시켜버린 것이다. 로페즈는 르네상스 시기가 경제 침체기였다고 보았다. 사턴과 손다이크는 르네상스 시기에 과학혁명이 지연되었다고 보았다.
르네상스의 시작
르네상스를 시간적, 지역적으로 명확히 구분할 수는 없다. 여러 곳에서 점진적으로 시작된 것이며 마찬가지로 중세가 언제 어디서 끝나는지도 얘기할 수 없다. 보통 이탈리아 중부 피렌체에서 시작되었다고 보고 있다.
이탈리아는 지리적으로 이슬람 세계, 비잔틴 세계와의 접촉을 유지하여 서유럽과의 가교 역할을 해왔다. 11세기 이후 상업의 발달과 십자군 전쟁으로 인한 도시의 활성화로 도시는 점차 도시국가 형태의 자치도시가 되었다. 13세기 말의 경제성장기에는 사회계층의 변화가 심해져서 특유의 시민문화가 형성되었는데 도시국가는 그 특성상 고대의 도시국가와 유사한 점도 있어 로마법이나 정치제도에 관심을 가지게 되었다. 이러한 조건들은 르네상스가 이탈리아에서 발생하게 된 원인이 되었다.
초기 르네상스를 체현한 인물로 피렌체 출신의 단테가 있다. 그는 정적에 의해 추방당해 유랑생활을 하던 중 대표작인 신곡을 완성했다.
로마의 시인 베르길리우스를 지옥, 연옥의 안내인으로 등장시키는데, 영혼의 정화를 통해 천국으로 승천할 수 있다는 내용으로 고전문학과 카톨릭을 조화시켜 대 서사시를 그려내었다.
단테보다 후대 사람인 페트라르카는 로마 제국 시대에 인간이 최고의 것을 성취했고 그 이후 점차 부패하여 중세 암흑시대까지 이르렀다고 보았다. 그는 역사를 종교적 사건의 연속이 아니라 사회 문화적인 진보로 간주했으므로 그는 고대 그리스 로마의 유산을 재발견하여 "재생"시켜야 한다고 생각했다. 그는 고전문헌을 모으고 라틴어로 시와 책을 쓰다가 이런식으로 고전 교양을 모아 인간의 어떻게 살아야 하는가를 사색하는 방식을 인문주의라고 불렀다. 그는 속어로 책을 쓰기 시작했으며 이러한 온고지신적인 태도는 이후의 예술, 과학 등 여러 분야에 큰 영향을 미쳤다. 페트라르카는 리비우스의 역사와 키케로의 도덕철학에 관심을 보였고 최초의 인문주의자라는 평가를 받고 있다.
회화에서 최초의 르네상스인으로 평가받는 사람은 조토이다. 그는 시공간을 다룸에 있어 고대의 스타일을 원용하였다.
법률에 있어서는 볼로냐 대학을 중심으로 로마법에 대한 연구가 활발했는데 그 체계화를 이룬 사람은 바르톨루스다.
이러한 움직임은 1348년의 흑사병과 각종 정치적인 격변으로 더이상 꽃피지 못했다. 이러한 인문주의가 다시 꽃피게 되는 것은 15세기가 되어서였다.
르네상스의 시작점을 오스만투르크의 콘스탄티노폴리스의 함락(1453년)에서 찾는 관점도 있다. 그것은 대포와 화약이 전쟁의 중심으로 들어온 전환점이 된 전쟁이었고 비잔티움 제국, 그리스 학자들은 그리스 로마의 문헌들을 가지고 로마로 도망쳤다. 이들은 이탈리아에 새로운 에너지를 주었으며 유럽의 오래된 종교적 질서가 붕괴되는 것에 일조하였다.
잉글랜드 르네상스
르네상스가 영국에 들어왔을 때는 엘리자베스 1세 때이며, 윌리엄 셰익스피어, 에드먼드 스펜서, 토머스 모어 같은 작가들을 배출해냈다.
이탈리아 르네상스
이탈리아의 르네상스는 인문주의라는 지적 흐름과 이탈리아 중북부가 도시주 형태의 자치상태에 놓여있었다는 점과 관계가 깊다. 당시 피렌체는 지중해 무역으로 번영하여 토스카나지방의 중심지였고 14세기경부터 교회, 이슬람 세계, 동로마 제국 등의 고전문화에 영향받게 되었다는 것이 일반적인 이해이다.
이탈리아에는 고대 유물이 많았고 따라서 조각가, 건축가 등이 고대 로마의 것을 공부하는 것이 가능했다. 건축에서는 브루넬레스키가 르네상스를 시작했다고 볼 수 있다. 그는 당시 건축에 애를 먹고 있던 피렌체 대성당의 큰 돔을 올리는 데 성공하여 명성을 얻었다. 이후 브라만테 등이 나타나 르네상스 건축을 이어나간다.
회화에서는 마사초가 그 서막을 열었다. 그의 자연주의적 태도는 이후 프란체스카, 베로키오등의 원근법, 해부학 등으로 이어진다. 레온 바티스타 알베르티는 '인간은 모든 것이 될 수 있는 가능성을 가지고 있다.'는 말로 유명한데 그는 건축, 회화를 넘나드는 방대한 저술로 인문주의자의 한 전형이 되었다. 이후 미켈란젤로, 다빈치, 라파엘로 등이 뒤이어 회화, 건축, 조각 등에서 다방면의 재능을 드러내었다.
음악은 르네상스 시기의 강력한 교황들의 후원으로 발전할 수 있었는데 시스티나 성당의 성가대는 전 유럽의 음악가, 성악가들로 이루어졌다. 유명한 사람으로는 프레와 팔레스트리나 등이 있다.
이탈리아 르네상스가 만개한 곳은 피렌체, 밀라노, 로마, 베네치아 등의 도시가 있다. 학술과 예술가들을 키웠던 후원자로 피렌체의 메디치 가문, 밀라노의 스포르차 가문 등이 알려져있다. 15세기 사보나롤라의 개혁에 의해 피렌체의 예술이 쇠퇴하고 프랑스와의 전쟁에 의해 밀라노의 스포르차가도 추방당했으나 로마에서는 교황에 의해 성 베드로 대성당의 건설(1515년)이 추진되어 많은 예술가가 모여들었다. 1527년 로마 약탈 이후 로마가 일시적으로 황폐해지지만 베네치아 공화국이나 토스카나 대공국등에서 미술은 계속 꽃필 수 있었다.
르네상스 시대는 밝은 시대가 아니라 페스트가 유행하거나 정치적 싸움, 전쟁이 계속된 시대였다. 문화가 꽃필 수 있었던 것은 궁정과 교황청 등 극히 일부에서 뿐이었고 일반적으로는 미신과 마술이 믿어지던 시대였다. 이탈리아 르네상스는 유럽의 근대를 이끈 역할을 했지만 그 시기 이탈리아 국내 정치는 엉망이었다. 교황령을 비롯한 여러 소국들로 갈라지고 외국으로부터 간섭받아 국가의 통일이 늦어져 정치, 사회적 근대화가 지연되는 결과가 초래된 시기였다.
1600년에 우주의 무한성을 말했던 조르다노 브루노가 이단으로 몰려 화형당하고 갈릴레이가 지동설로 종교재판을 받은 것이 상징적으로 보여주듯 이탈리아에서 자유로운 과학연구를 진행하기는 어려워졌다. 이미 16세기 후반, 미술에서도 형식주의의 매너리즘(manierismo)에 빠져들기 시작했고 그 창조력은 북유럽으로 이동하기 시작했다. 그러나 이탈리아의 17세기는 카톨릭 교회가 중심이 된 바로크 미술의 시대가 되었으니 문화적 불모의 시대라고 말할 수는 없다.
[편집] 프랑스 르네상스1495년 샤를 8세의 이탈리아 정복 후에 들어왔다. 《수상록》을 쓴 미셸 드 몽테뉴와 프랑수아 라블레 같은 작가들이 등장했고, 루브르 박물관도 이때 건축하였다. 1533년 메디치 가의 카테리나 (후에 카트린느 드 메디치)가 프랑스 국왕 앙리 2세와 결혼을 한다.
[편집] 독일 르네상스독일에서는 이탈리아와 거의 가까운 바이에른에서 시작이 되었는 데, 아담과 하와, 4명의 사도 등의 미술 작품을 완성한 알브레히트 뒤러가 선두이다. 또한 성서의 연구도 시작했는 데, 이것이 후에 종교개혁이 일어나는 바탕이 되었다.
폴란드 르네상스
폴란드에서는 15세기와 16세기 사이에 이탈리아의 화가, 상인, 사상가들이 폴란드에 들어오면서, 크라쿠프를 중심으로 발달하였다. 지동설을 주장한 니콜라우스 코페르니쿠스와 얀 코하노프스키 같은 시인들이 등장했다.
[편집] 스페인 르네상스스페인에서는 카스티야 왕국을 중심으로 르네상스가 발달하기 시작하였으며, 돈키호테의 작가 미겔 데 세르반테스와 화가 엘 그레코가 그 시기의 인물들이다.
네덜란드 르네상스
오늘날에 벨기에와 합쳐있던 네덜란드는 남유럽과 북유럽을 잇는 교통의 관로였다. 거의 이탈리아와 같은 시기에 르네상스가 일어난 걸로 알려졌다. 반 에이크 형제와 페터 브뤼겔 같은 화가들이 등장하였다.
르네상스의 종말
130년간 지속되던 르네상스는 1530년경 끝이 났다.
그 이유는 우선 1492년 크리스토발 코론이 포르투갈인들과 함께 인도로 가는 해로를 발견했기 때문이다.(사실은 아메리카로 가는 해로였다.) 그 후에는 북서부 유럽의 상인들이 무역상품을 리스본과 안트웨르펜을 통해 거래하는 것을 선호하게 되었다. 또한
1517년 아우구스티누스 수도회의 수도사인 마르틴 루터가 종교 개혁을 단행했기 때문이다. 이로 인해 교회는 분열되었다. 교회의 분열은 그동안 납부금과 세금의 형태로 이탈리아를 풍요롭게 했던 돈줄의 고갈을 의미했다. 유럽인의 아메리카 대륙 상륙과 종교개혁으로 결국 이탈리아는 상업적 무역자본과 자본, 두가지를 동시에 잃었다. 이로 인해 르네상스는 쇠퇴할 수밖에 없었다.
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